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HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



DEALING WITH 



THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, THE HISTORY 

OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH, THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE 

CHANGES THESE HAVE UNDERGONE, AND PRESENT 

USAGE RESPECTING FORMS IN DISPUTE 



BY x 



ALONZO KEED, A.M. 



formerly instructor in english grammar in the polytechnic institute, 

Brooklyn; and one of the authors of reed and kellogg's 

"complete course in English'* 



BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D. 

DEAN OF THE FACULTY, AND PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND 

LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN ; AND 

ONE OF THE AUTHORS OF REED AND KELLOGG'S 

"COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH" 



NEW YORK 

MAYNARD, MERRILL, & CO., PUBLISHERS 

29, 31, & 33 East 19th Street 

1900 



W7- % 



A COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH 



REED'S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach 
the correct spelling-, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common 
in current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced, or 
misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of word 
analysis. 188 pages, 12mo. 

REED'S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleas- 
ing, but methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical 
grammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen. 

REED & KELLOGG'S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary 
English grammar, consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and 
adapted to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen. 

REED & KELLOGG'S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on 
English grammar and composition, in which the science of the language is made 
tributary to the art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded, 
and adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 3S6 pages, 16mo, cloth. 

REED & KELLOGG'S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully 
graded and complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based 
on the natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to 
complete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth. 

REED & KELLOGG'S HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR. A work dealing with 
the science of the English language, the history of the parts of speech, the philoso- 
phy of the changes these have undergone, and with present usage respecting forms 
in dispute. 285 pages, 16mo, cloth. 

KELLOGG & REED'S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin, 
Greek, and Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred 
common derivative words in English ; with a brief history of the English language. 
122 pages, 16mo, cloth. 

KELLOGG & REED'S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the 
grammatical changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on syno- 
nyms, prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high 
schools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth. 

KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Eevised and enlarged edition. 
Supplementing the development of tne science with exhaustive practice in compo- 
sition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools, academies, 
and lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE, with copious 
extracts from the leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as 
to the method In which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

Copyright, 1900, 
By FRANCES M. REED and BRAINEED KELLOGG. 



PEINTED AT THE NORWOOD PRESS, NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

This is a historical and scientific grammar. It has been 
written to supplement "Graded Lessons in English" and 
"Higher Lessons in English," — to help the student to a 
technical knowledge of the language which they do not 
attempt to give. 

The scope of the present work has forced us to pay far 
less attention here to the sentence as a unit. We still 
believe that a patient study of the sentence is essential 
to an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech, to a 
correct use of grammatical forms, and to an acquaintance 
with Jl general principles of discourse. We still believe 
that such study simplifies translation, and is the best logi- 
cal discipline available for the student; that the greatest 
good to be attained through the study of English grammar 
is not skill in parsing, but skill in composing ; and that the 
thorough analysis of all kinds of sentences is, more than 
any other one thing, helpful to the student in constructing 
such sentences. This conviction is embodied in our former 
works. 

But marking time is not marching on. In "Higher 
Lessons " great emphasis is laid upon the sentence as the 



4 PREFACE 

unit of thought, and upon its rigorous analysis for the sake 
of subsequent synthesis. This is ample reason for laying 
little or no stress upon it in a treatise designed for the 
student at a later stage of his linguistic training. The 
purpose of this work neither requires nor permits us to 
repeat, except in brief review, matter so fully presented 
in the preceding books. 

The purpose of this book has forced us to do wholly or 
more fully here what was left undone, or but partly done, 
in our former books. In particular, it has forced us to pay 
great attention to the growth of our alphabet from its 
scanty beginnings ; to the development of words from 
roots ; to the gains of our vocabulary ; to the influence of 
the Norman-French upon spelling and pronunciation, and 
upon the structure of the sentence ; to the dropping of 
inflections, and to the forms which those that survive have 
assumed; to the terminology that historical continuity calls 
for ; and, in general, to the tracing of the parts of speech 
from their sources down. 

More particularly, the purpose of this book has enforced 
earnest attention to the philosophy of the subjunctive mode 
and its employment in English; to the distinction between 
the essential and the incidental offices of tense ; to the 
sequence of tenses ; to the classification of verbs ; and to 
the demand for a distinct name for the verb-forms in -ing 
that have a nounal nature. 

For any departure here from the method in which some 



PBEFACE 5 

of these subjects were formerly presented, reasons are 
given in the body of the work. The more significant of 
these changes in treatment were all distinctly foreshadowed 
in " Higher Lessons " (Eevised Edition, 1896) — as supple- 
mentary to which this book may be used. 

We are most fortunate in having had for this treatise 
our former critic, Professor Francis A. March, the eminent 
grammarian and philologist. What his work upon these 
pages, on their way through the press, has been, no one 
need be told. 

A closing word is personal. One of the authors of this 
grammar, Alonzo Eeed, died as the book was approaching 
completion. But he lived to write a portion of the text 
and to criticise minutely the rest of it. His wisdom is 
apparent in the plan of the work ; and his ripe scholarship 
is seen in every chapter of this, the last, effort of our joint 
labor. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 



PAGE 



Letters — Vowels and Consonants. Alphabets — Our Eng- 
lish and its Imperfections 13 

CHAPTER II 

Words — Roots and Affixes. English Vocabulary and Effects 
of the Norman Conquest upon it. Sounds of O.E. 
Letters ... 24 

CHAPTER HI 

The Simple Sentence. Subject and Predicate. Attribute 
and Object Complement. Compound Parts. Kinds of 
Sentences . 34 

CHAPTER IV 

The Parts of Speech. Phrases. Same Words Many Parts 

of Speech ... 45 

CHAPTER V 

The Compound Sentence. The Complex Sentence. Clauses 

— Independent, Adjective, Noun, and Adverb . • 56 

7 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER VI 



Complex Phrases and Clauses. Modifiers of Subject and of 
Predicate. Object — Direct, Passive, Factitive, Indirect, 
and Cognate 64 

CHAPTER VII 

The Noun. Derivation, Classification, and Modifications. 

Number. Plural — Regular, Irregular, and Peculiar . 73 

CHAPTER VIII 
The Noun. Gender — Feminine from Masculine. Person . 85 

CHAPTER IX 

The Noun. Case — Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 

Declension of O.E. and of Mn.E. Nouns .... 92 

CHAPTER X 

The Pronoun. Personal — Simple and Compound. De- 
clension 108 

CHAPTER XI 
The Pronoun. Interrogative and Relative .... 117 

CHAPTER XII 

The Pronoun. Wrong Case-forms. Adjective Pronouns . 126 



CONTENTS 9 

CHAPTER XIII 

PAGE 

The Adjective. Functions, Classes, Comparison . . . 134 

CHAPTER XIV 

The Adjective. Which Comparison Gaining. Rules for 
Spelling. The Articles A and The. Points of Agree- 
ment, of Disagreement 142 

CHAPTER XV 

The Verb. Transitive and Intransitive. The Participle, the 

Infinitive, the Nounal Verb 151 

CHAPTER XVI 

The Verb. Voice — Passive. How Formed and its Origin . 161 

CHAPTER XVII 
The Verb. Mode — Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative 168 

CHAPTER XVIII 

The Verb. Tense — Offices Essential and Incidental. The 
Tenses, and their Sequence in Clauses, and with the 
Infinitive, the Participle, and the Nounal Verb . . 177 



10 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XIX 

PAGE 

The Verb. Number and Person. Auxiliaries — Roots, 
Meanings, Endings, and Uses of. Shall and Will in the 
Future 189 

CHAPTER XX 

The Verb. Strong Verbs — List of, Stem, and Endings. 

Weak and Strong distinguished 204 

CHAPTER XXI 

The Verb. Weak Verbs, Regular. Weak Verbs, Irregular, 

and List, Stem, and Endings. O.E. Conjugation . . 212 

CHAPTER XXII 

The Verb. Mn.E. Conjugation of Be, Have, Drive, and 
Walk, and of Verbs in the Passive. Mn.E. Verb 
Endings 221 

CHAPTER XXIII 

The Adverb. Uses — Common and Exceptional. Derivation 

and Composition. Adverb Phrases 237 

CHAPTER XXIV 

The Adverb. Classification and Comparison. Use in 

Sentences 246 



CONTENTS 11 

CHAPTER XXV 

PAGE 

The Preposition. Original Office. Classification. Exten- 
sion of Meaning. As Adverbs 25 3 

CHAPTER XXVI 

The Conjunction. Classification of Connectives. Derivation. 

Use. Omission 264 



NOTE TO THE TEACHEB, 

The historical part of this work is largely in foot-notes. 
Presuming that the student is equal to what is there said, 
we have asked questions and given exercises upon these 
notes. But the most difficult of these, and the questions 
upon them, should be omitted when the classes are not 
readv for them. 



CHAPTER I 

LETTERS 

We are intelligent beings; we perceive, we know, we 
think. We are social beings as well ; we communicate our 
thought. For this communication language is needed- 
Language is chiefly verbal — spoken words and written 
words. Spoken words are made up of sounds ; written words, 
of characters representing the sounds. 

Spoken words were used early, for men must early have 
needed words to aid gesture in the expression of wants; 
written words, recording thought for the thinker's contem- 
plation, or for transmission to others, came into being later. 
Everything needful for spoken words — the air, the lungs, 
and the organs of the throat and mouth — was at hand ; 
the characters used in writing, and the materials and instru- 
ments for making them had to be prepared. 

The importance of writing we appreciate; our remote 
ancestors did not and could not. 

The characters composing written words are called Letters. 
The letters of a language are its Alphabet. 

Vowels and Consonants. — The sounds of words are pro- 

13 



14 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

duced by air expelled from the lungs, and modified by the 
larynx, nose, palate, tongue, teeth, and lips. If the vocal 
cords are kept apart, and the air passes through the 
mouth or nostrils with little interference, we have simple 
breath; if the cords are brought together, and the expelled 
air makes them vibrate, we have voice. 

If the mouth-passage is kept open and the voice rushes through 
without audible friction, we have a vowel sound ; if the mouth-pas- 
sage is narrowed, and the air, slightly voiced or wholly voiceless, is 
impeded so as to cause perceptible friction, or is completely stopped, 
we have a consonant sound. 

Vowels and Consonants are the terms ambiguously applied (1) to 
the sounds, and (2) to the letters representing the sounds. 

In producing the various sounds, the mouth-organs occupy different 
relative positions. At each, the mouth-passage takes a distinct shape ; 
and, as the shape changes, the sound changes. 

This change of shape and of sound is seen especially in the produc- 
tion of vowels. As the possible changes in the mouth-passage are 
many, the possible vowels are many ; even in English, where the 
vowel sounds are numerous, we do not make all that we might. 

Vowels and consonants stand side by side in almost every word, 
and in almost every syllable — that is, so much of a word as is 
uttered by a single impulse of the voice. The vowel is the tonic 
element of words spoken or sung. 

The Origin of Letters. — The earliest kinds of writing 
were pictorial. Men tried to place before each other their 
conceptions of things by rude pictures of them. These pic- 
tures, called hieroglyphs, differed from our words (1) in 
that they had a natural connection — resemblance — with 
visible objects, while words have such connection only with 



LETTERS 15 

sounds; and (2) in that they represented things, and con- 
ceptions of things, without reference to their names, while 
words represent sounds, which may be the name of many 
objects. These hieroglyphs differed from our letters still 
more than from our words. 

By what steps these hieroglyphs became (1) the names 
of the things they once pictured, (2) the syllables of the 
names, (3) the consonantal element of the syllables, and 
(4) the separate vowels and consonants of the syllables, 
is not fully known. But scholars agree that alphabets 
had their beginning in hieroglyphs, proper or symbolic, 
and that these gradually lost their pictorial character 
and became mere signs of speech-sounds — genuine, if not 
perfect, alphabets. 

The Primitive Sounds. — A feature of our linguistic family 
is, that everything in it has developed; words have come 
from roots; complex sentences have grown from simple; 
grammar has added inflections; sounds, and the letters 
representing them, have increased. 

The scheme of articulations in the theoretic parent-speech of 
the Indo-Europeans contains but three vowels, 1 a, i, and u, with 

1 Said by Professor Whitney, in 1867, in his Language and the Study of Language, 
virtually repeated in 1875 in his Life and Groicth of Language^ and, so far as known, 
his latest deliverance on this point. 

Professor Sievers, Eneyc. Britannica, Vol. XVIII., p. 788, says that the Aryan 
had five vocalic sounds —a, e, i, o, and u, besides diphthongs,— and more consonants 
than Professor Whitney allows. 

If Aryan here means Indo-European, as elsewhere in the article it does, the 
"doctors disagree." 



16 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

the sounds of a, e, and oo in far, the, and boot; and but twelve 
consonants, b, d, g, h, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, and t — the h not a 
separate letter but closely combining with t, d, p, g, and k. 

The oldest alphabet used by Indo-Europeans — the Sanskrit — 
has forty-seven letters, fourteen of them vowels, and thirty-three 
consonants. 

The Alphabets from which the English is derived. — The 

English, alphabet came from the Latin; the Latin, from the 
Greek ; the Greek, from the Phoenician ; and it is thought 
that the earlier forms of the Phoenician were devised by 
the Egyptians. 

The Phoenician Alphabet consisted of twenty-two charac- 
ters—all consonantal, though three of them could stand 
for the vowels a, i, and u. The Greeks borrowed most of 
these twenty-two, used many of them without material 
change of form or value, converted some into vowels, 
added others, and formed thus their alphabet of twenty- 
four letters. 1 

The Latin Alphabet was taken from the Greek used by 
the Greek colonists in Sicily and western Italy. In their 
forms, its letters 2 do not differ greatly from the Greek; 
in their names, they do. 

1 " In the Greek alphabet," says Professor Whitney, "for the first time ... we find 
realized what we cannot but regard as the true ideal of a mode of writing — namely, 
that it be simply a faithful representation of spoken speech, furnishing a visible sign for 
every audible sound that the voice utters, and not attempting to distinguish any class of 
sounds as of more importance than any other." 

2 By Greek and Latin letters we here mean only capital letters ; the small, or 
cursive, letters are of mediaeval growth. 



LETTERS 17 

All but K of the fifteen characters for the original Indo- 
European "articulations" the Latin took from the Greek. 

By a slight diacritical mark, the old Latin C, which stood 
for the Greek k and g, was converted into G. C then 
marked the k-sound alone ; and G, the g-sound. 

F is the old Greek digamma. 

Q is a form of an old Phoenician letter used in early 
Greek but dropped in later. 

V is only another- form of U. 

X was taken early from the Greek ; Y and Z, later. 

The vowels E and are from the Greek, and are both 
Phoenician. E goes back to an Egyptian hieroglyph; 
does not. 

The English Alphabet. — The Greek K, rejected by the 
Romans, has been restored to use in modern English. 

J is a recent variant of I. I and J were treated as 
the same letter as late as Todd's Johnson's Dictionary, 
1818. 

W — double U or double V — has come into English 
since 1066. 

The three letters — K, J, and W — plus the Latin twenty- 
three form the twenty-six in English. 

The oldest form of the English is Anglo-Saxon. The 
characters first used by the Saxons were called runes. On 
the Christianization of the Saxons their alphabet perished 
and the Latin was adopted. But to denote sounds not in 
the Latin — that of th in thick and that of w — two runes 

H. SCH. GRAM. — 2 



18 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

were retained. For the th in our that, the Saxons created 
a letter by crossing their d, making it fS. 

Though this new Saxon alphabet was the one handed on 
to us, not all of our letters are Saxon. We have seen that 
J and W are not ; and Q, V ; and Z are not. 

THE VOWELS OF OUR ALPHABET 

The great division of our letters is into Vowels and Con- 
sonants. The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u ; the consonants are 
the remaining letters except w 1 and y. 

The International Dictionary assigns eight sounds to a, 
five to e ? three to i, four to o ; and six to u. 

The diacritical marks there given to the vowels and the key-words 
illustrating the vowel sounds are these: a in ale, a in senate, a in 
care, & in am, a in arm, a in ask, a in final, and a in all ; e in eve 
(first e), e in event (first e), e in end, e in fern, and e in recent (sec- 
ond e) ; I in ice, I in idea, i in ill ; o in old, o in obey, 6 in orb, and 5 
in odd ; ii in use, u in unite, u in rude, u in full, u in up, and u in urn. 

Classification 2 of the Vowels. — In forming the vowels 
there is always a " place of constriction," where some part 

1 Peile, Encyc. Britannica, p. 1, says, "In sounding the i (the long e-sound) the 
tongue is raised so as almost to touch the palate, the passage left being so close that, if 
the tongue -was suffered for a second to rest on the palate, there would be not i but y ; 
and a similar relation exists between u and w. This is commonly expressed by calling 
w and y semivowels." 

2 The material used in this classification of the vowels and consonants is largely 
taken from the exhaustive article, Guide to Pronunciation, in The International 
Dictionary. 



LETTERS 19 

of the tongue comes almost into touch with the throat be- 
hind or the mouth-roof above. This constriction divides the 
oral cavity into two connected cavities. 

I. If this place is near the base of the tongue, we have 
the Open-throat Vowel a — the primary 1 sound — and its 
variant a. 

II. If the constriction is made by arching up the tongue 
toward the hard palate, we have the Front Vowels, a, a, a, a, 
e, I, u, and u. 

III. If the constriction is made by arching the tongue at 
the soft palate, the membranous curtain at the rear of the 
mouth, we have the Back Vowels, a, o, 6, 6, u, and u. 

IV. If the passage at the place of constriction is not, as 
with the front and back vowels it is, concave on the palate 
and convex on the tongue, but concave on both, we have the 
Mixed Vowels, e, ii, and ii. 2 

Any change in the vowel-chamber changes the sound. 
In forming I, for instance, the mouth is closing ; hence the 
initial and the final element of the sound are unlike. The 

1 In forming this vowel, Peile says : "The whole channel from the glottis . .-. to 
the lips ... is thoroughly open. All vowels except a are pronounced with a cer- 
tain contraction of the organs. . . . It has absolutely no relation to any consonant ; 
it is the one primary, essential vowel. The farther we trace back the history of the 
language . . . the more nearly, if not entirely, does it become the one starting- 
point from which all other vowel-sound is derived." 

See also on this sound The Elements of English Pronunciation, second series of 
Professor Whitney's Oriental Linguistic Studies. Here, too, is Professor Whitney's 
instructive estimate of the percentages of the different sounds of the vowels and 
consonants used in our literature. 

2 All that is here said of these vowel-sounds may easily be verified in making them. 



20 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

sound begins as that of a, or something near it, and ends 
as that of I. It is not, then, a simple x sound. 

THE CONSONANTS OF OUR ALPHABET 

Classification. — I. Classifying Consonants with regard to 
Obstruction in the mouth, we have (1) those in which the 
breath is only checked, and (2) those in which it is stopped. 

In the (1) class, called continuous, fricative, are (a) the liquids, 
1, m, n, and r, — of which m and n are nasals, because the checked 
breath escapes through the nostrils ; (b) the sibilants, c soft (as in 
cent), s, s (= z, as in is), s (= sh, as in sure), s (= zh, as in vision), 
z, z ( = zh, as in seizure), and x (= z) when beginning words ; (c) the 
spirants, f, g soft (as in gin), j (= g soft), v, and w and y when con- 
sonants. 

In the (2) class, called mutes, are b, c 3 hard (as in cat), d, g hard 
(as in go), h, 2 k, p, q, 3 t, x 3 (= ks, as in ivax). The x (= gz, as in 
exact), falls into both of these classes. 

II. Classifying consonants with regard to Intonation, 
we have (1) voiced consonants, or sonants, subvocals; and 
(2) voiceless consonants, or surds. 4 

1 We call it a diphthong. The a. e, o, u, ou, (as in out), and oi (as in oil), also are diph- 
thongs. In pronouncing a diphthong, the voice makes what is called a glide — a transi- 
tional sound produced by the change of the mouth-organs in passing (1) from the 
beginning to the end of a diphthong, (2) from consonant to vowel or from vowel to 
consonant in a syllable, or (3) from one component to the other of a double consonant. 

2 The h is unique. It is made through a vowel-chamber for the following vowel, 
and with some rustle all along the mouth-passage. It is usually called an aspirate. 

3 The letters C, q, and x are superfluous. The sounds of C are those of k and 8 ; 
q = k(qu = kw); and x (1) (as in wax) =ks, (2) (as in exact) = gz, and (3) when 
beginning words = z. 

4 Every surd except h bears a noteworthy relation to some sonant — c soft to z, C 
hard to g hard, f to v, k to g hard, p to b, q to g hard, S to z, s (= sh) to z (= zh), t 









LETTERS 21 

In the (1) class, sonants, are b, d, g soft, g hard, j, 1, m, n, r, 
s (= z), s (= zh), v, w when a consonant, x (= z), x ( = gi), y when 
a consonant, z, and z ( = zh). 

In the (2) class, surds, are c soft, c hard, f, h, k, p, q, s, s (= sh), 
t, and x (= ks). 

III. Classifying consonants with regard to their Place of 
Articulation, we have (1) those with this on the lips, and 
called labials ; (2) those with this on or near the front upper 
teeth, and called dentals ; (3) those with this at the hard 
palate, and called palatals; and (4) those with this at the 
root of the tongue, and called gutturals. 

In the (1) class, labials, are b, m, p, and w when a consonant. 

In the (2) class, dentals, are c soft, d, n, r (as in string), s, s (=z), 
t, x (= z), and z. 

The f and v, made by the under lip and the upper teeth, are a 
union of (1) and (2) and are called labio-dentals. 

In the (3) class, palatals, are g soft, j, 1, r (as in roar), s (= sh), 
s (= zh), y when a consonant, and z ( = zh). 

In the (4) class, gutturals, are c hard, g hard, k, q, x (= ks), and 
x (=gz). 

The h has no fixed place of articulation — the place varying with 
that of the letter to which it is joined. 1 

to d, and x (=ks) to x (= gz). The mouth-organs are in the same position in making 
the letters of each pair ; the surd sound in any pair is the sonant sound in that pair 
minus all intonation. 

1 Thus far single consonants. A word respecting digraphs — combinations, each, 
of two consonants to express a single sound. The digraphs are ch, gh, ph, sh, th, 
and ng. 

The digraph ch (as in church) is the surd corresponding to the sonant j, and is a 
continuous, surd palatal; ch (as in machine) = s (as in sure), and is classed with 
it; and ch (as in chasm) = k, and is classed with it. 



22 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

THE IMPERFECTION OF OUR ALPHABET 

A perfect alphabet has as many letters as articulate 
sounds, and each letter always stands for the same sound. 
In a language with such an alphabet, one knows from the 
word as he hears it in what letters to write it ; and from 
the word as he sees it, with what sounds to pronounce 
it. The English alphabet is both redundant and defective. 

I. Redundant (1) in that c, q, and x have no sounds not repre- 
sented by s, k, and g ; and j and z are duplicated by g soft and by s 
(in is and vision). 

Redundant (2) in that some letters, while having each a sound 
exclusively its own, have also a sound or sounds in common. For 
instance, a and o, as in what and not, have o in common ; a and e, 
as in say and prey, have a in common ; i and e, as in pique and eve, 
have e in common ; and o and u, (1) as in do and rude, have u in com- 
mon; (2) as in wolf and /wZZ,.have u in common; and (3) as in son 
and sun, have u in common. 

Redundant (3) in that some, of its letters — a, o, and u, etc. — are 
sometimes proper diphthongs, each a combination of two clearly 
pronounced vowel sounds^ 

II. Defective (1) in that it has twenty-four vowel sounds and only 
five letters to represent them; and (2) in that it sometimes takes two 
letters to represent a single sound — the th and the ng, for example. 

The gh (as in ghost) = g hard, and the gh (as in cough) = f ; and the two are 
classed with g hard and f. 

The ph (as in philosophy) = f, and the ph (in diphthong, as pronounced by 
some) =s p ; and the two are classed with f and p. 

The sh (as in shine) = s (as in sure), and is classed with it. 

The th (as in breath) is a continuous, surd lingua-dental, corresponding to 
the sonant lingua-dental th in breathe. 

The ng (as in breathing), is a continuous, sonant, nasal guttural. 



LETTERS 23 



THE SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Language — Spoken and Written. 
Letters and their Origin. The Alphabets from which the English 
descends. The Fourfold Classification of Vowels. The Threefold 
Classification of Consonants. The Imperfections of our Alphabet. 

Questions. — What is our need of language ? Relation of written 
words to spoken ? Which the earlier and why ? Letters, what ? 
An alphabet, what ? Difference between breath and voice ? between 
a vowel sound and a consonant ? Syllables, what ? Hieroglyphs, 
what ? and how differing from words and letters ? What sounds 
and letters in the primitive Indo-European ? Trace the succession 
of alphabets. The peculiarity of the Phoenician ? The relation of 
the Greek to the Phoenician ? What English letters not in Latin ? 
not in Anglo-Saxon ? The Anglo-Saxon characters called what ? 
How many sounds has each English vowel ? What is meant by 
" place of constriction"? How do we have four classes of vowels? 
Give, and justify, their names. What vowel sound is primary ? 
What does Peile say of it ? A semivowel, what ? a diphthong ? a 
glide ? Grouped with regard to obstruction, what are the two classes 
of consonants ? Into what classes is one of these subdivided ? 
Grouped in regard (1) to intonation, and (2) to place of articulation, 
what classes are there ? What consonants are superfluous ? and 
what letters do they duplicate ? What consonant is an aspirate ? 
What is unchanged in forming the surds and the sonants pairing 
them ? In what respect do the surd and the sonant differ in sound ? 
Digraphs, what ? Give and class them. A perfect alphabet, what ? 

Exercises. — Give the various sounds of the several vowels, tell 
into which class — (1) open throat, (2) front, (3) back, or (4) mixed 
— each falls. Give the sounds of the consonants, and justify the 
division (1) into continuous and mute, (2) into sonants and surds, 
and (3) into labials, dentals, palatals, and gutturals. 



CHAPTER II 

WORDS 

The First Language Used. — In communication, verbal 
language is now mainly employed. But the cries and other 
vocal sounds of the infant and the undeveloped man were 
accompanied by a Natural Language of facial expression, of 
attitude, and of gestures by the hands and arms ; and it 
is thought that artificial language at first developed most 
rapidly in signs addressed to the eye, or gesture language. 

But such language had its limitations — it could not have 
been used in the dark, when opaque objects or long distance 
intervened, or when the hands were otherwise engaged. 
The superiority of the vocal muscles to all others for com- 
municating thought was eventually seen, and the voice 
came to supersede in large measure all other agencies of 
expression. But gesture language, though supplanted, is 
not extinct; we resort to it now to reenforce verbal. 

The First Words. — The first words connoted wants, as 
hunger; and denoted things wanted, as food. Words 
denoting sensible things connote relations, actions, and 
qualities. All that we know, and can tell, of external 
things even now, is their relations, actions, and qualities. 

Further, our ancestors could not have had — for we our- 

24 



WORDS 25 

selves have not — words expressive each of all the acts or 
qualities of material substances or of persons. Most words 
are found to denote, etymologieally, only special features 
of things. By association, many words have come to stand 
for things as wholes, for our complexes of ideas respect- 
ing things. 

Xow, whether the first words were (1) imitative, or 
(2) expressive of the feelings aroused by things, or (3) utter- 
ances accompanying gestures to call attention to things, or 
(4) originated in all these ways, it is reasonably certain 
that they were prevailingly monosyllabic — such as we now 
appropriately call roots. We do not come across these now 
because they were spoken, and perished in the speaking; 
nobody knows how long it was before spoken words were 
first written, nor how long after words were written before 
those which have reached us were written. 

When any one, recalling the vocal signs made in directing 
his attention to particular things, used these signs himself 
for like purposes, and was understood in their use, then 
verbal language began. Using the vocal signs to denote the 
things, they could now speak of ,the things when away 
from them and when gestures of direction could not be 
made. 

Roots. — In resolving Indo-European words into their 
elements we come even yet upon what are evidently roots, 
if not the primitive roots ; but the oldest Indo-European 
language is modern compared with primeval speech. These 



26 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

roots are mostly monosyllabic though many of them are 
still further resolvable. 

Resolvable, for instance, may be separated into solv, re, 
and able. Solv gives the word its fundamental meaning, 
and gathers about itself, as nucleus, the modifying prefix 
re l and the suffix able. 

The suffixes are divided into derivative 2 and inflectional 2 
suffixes — the derivative being those that mark the part of 
speech to which the words having them belong; and the 
inflectional being the terminations that denote the number, 
case, person, or other grammatical modification of the words 
having them. 

The English Vocabulary Composite. — The words in English 
were at first mostly of one stock. They were Anglo-Saxon, 
and belonged to the Low German — a branch of the Teu- 



1 Max Miiller says, " What we now call a noun was originally a kind of sentence, 
consisting of the root, and some so-called suffix which pointed to something of which 
that root was predicated." 

Professor Whitney says, "The endings of declension and conjugation and the pre- 
fixes and suffixes of derivation were originally independent elements, words which 
were first collocated with other words, and then entered into combination, and were 
more or less fused, with the latter, losing their primitive form and meaning, and be- 
coming mere signs of modification and relation ; hence the historically traceable begin- 
nings of speech were simple roots — not parts of speech even, and still less forms." 

Professor Otto Jespersen of Copenhagen, while, in his Progress of Language, 
conceding that this is the theory prevalent among the leading linguists, and while con- 
ceding'that some inflectional forms have arisen in this way, nevertheless says, "But 
when the inference is, that all flectional forms are to be explained in this manner, and 
that here we have the key to flexion in general, great exception may be taken." 

2 Truths illustrates both classes of suffixes. The th is derivative, making a noun 
out of the root tru ; and -s is inflectional, marking the plurality of the noun truth. 






WOBDS 27 

tonic, or Germanic, member of the great Indo-European 
family of languages. They formed the vocabulary of the 
tribes that, in the fifth century, left their home on the coast 
north of the Elbe, invaded Britain, subdued the Kelts 
inhabiting the island, and settled there. They and their 
language came to be called Englisc, i English ' ; and the 
island, Engla land, 'England.' 

In the eleventh century, these Anglo-Saxon, or English, 
conquerors were in turn conquered by the Northmen, or 
Normans, a Scandinavian people that early in the tenth 
century had secured a footing about the mouth of the 
Seine. 

Their language had been nearly like the English but 
they had learned French in Normandy. This was folk- 
Latin — sprinkled with a few Keltic and Teutonic words — 
as learned by the Kelts and Franks of Gaul from Roman 
soldiers and colonists settled among them. As the Nor- 
mans spoke it, it was called Norman-French. 

There have been other infusions of Latin into English, 
and infusions of languages other than Latin ; but only the 
Norman-French concerns us here. 

THE EFFECTS OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST UPON OUR 
VOCABULARY 

1. It Brought New Words into English. — These came 
(1) to supply the demands of the blended peoples for terms 
to denote things and express thoughts which the English 



28 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

before the Conquest did not have, and therefore had no 
words to denote. 

They came (2) to fill the gap caused by the loss of words 
which the English before the Conquest did have, but, in 
the centuries of depression and degradation after the Con- 
quest, had lost. 1 

They came (3) as contestants for the places already filled 
by the O.E. words. In this contest they sometimes sup- 
planted the O.E. words ; oftener, they got a footing, and 
shared the ground with the O.E. 2 words ; but oftener still 
they were unable to get even a footing in the language. 

2. It Broke up the Habit of Compounding Words. — Since 
the Conquest little attempt has been made <to meet the 
demand for new words by compounding the old material. 
Words still combine, but with an awkwardness that comes 
from disuse of habit. Our words have lost the flexibility 
that distinguished them as it still distinguishes the 
German. 

3. It Changed the Order of Words in the Sentence. — The 
old German order is kept in this translation of a com- 
plex sentence from the A.-S. Chronicle: — 

1 In The English Language, Professor Lounsbury estimates this loss at more than 
one-half of the O.E. vocabulary ; and Dr. J. A. H. Murray, Encyc. Britannica, Vol. 
VIII., article English Language, says, "The practical vocabulary shrank to a fraction 
of its former extent." 

2 It is customary to divide English into Periods, and to give separate names to the 
divisions. From 450 to 1100 or 1150, it is called Old English ; from 1100 or 1150 to 1500 
or 1550, Middle English ; and from 1500 or 1550 on, Modern English — respectively 
abbreviated to O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. 



vroBDS 29 

" They all against the king were fighting until they him slain had." 

But when we read Alfred or Wyclif or any contemporary 
di Chaucer, we see that the English had changed the 

rerman order, and given proportion and unity to the 
sentence; though we may not find the light and easy 
movement so characteristic of our modern prose. 

4. It Changed the Spelling and the Sounds of O.E. Words. 
— The changes in orthography and orthoepy have been 

lostly along the lines of euphony. The law of phonetic 
change, illustrated here as elsewhere, is one springing out 
of the tendency to do things with the least effort — is the 
law of economy. 

O.E. Combinations. — The O.E. combined c and n, h and t, c and g, 
h and n, h and 1. h and r, w and r, and w and 1 — Siscnaivan, 1 eahta, 
licgan, hnlgan, hlanc, hring, writan, sm&wlanc; and then pronounced 
both consonants. During their long stay in France, the Normans 
exchanged their own harsh speech for one more mellifluous ; and 
when they united with the English, they would not, or could not, 
utter such combinations. We owe it to them that we are not driven 
to these arduous vocal feats. If such combinations exist to-day, 
the sound of both letters is changed, or one letter is silent. 

The change to greater ease is seen in both vowels and 
consonants, and consists oftentimes in bringing forward 
the place of constriction, or of mute closure. 

Vowels. — O.E. a (our a) has changed (1) to our 6 — ban, stan, 
ham becoming bone, stone, home; (2) to oe and oa (our o) — da and 
etc becoming doe and oak; and (3) to 5 — hat becoming hot. 

1 For the pronunciation of these words, see table at the end of this chapter. 



30 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

O.E. o (our o) has changed to oo — dom, blod, and god becoming 
doom, blood, and good. t 

O.E. u (our u) has changed (1) to ou — hus, rich, uncut! becoming 
house, rough, and uncouth ; (2) to ow — brun and nu becoming brown 
and now ; and (3) to oo — rum becoming room. 

O.E. e (our a) has changed to ee — med smdfet becoming meed and 
feet. 

O.E. 3d (like first e in there) has changed (1) to ee, (2) to ea ( = ee), 
and (3) to ai — grdedig, h(j&5, and hcer becoming greedy, heath, and 
hair. 

Consonants. — The consonantal change effected by Nor- 
man influence is the palatalization of the gutturals; when 
not palatalized, the guttural may drop out; when not 
dropped, it may become silent, or turn to a vowel or semi- 
vowel. 

The guttural g, initial, medial, and final, may (1) drop out ; 

(2) change to y ; (3) to w ; (4) to i ; (5) to g soft — genog and 
stigel becoming enough and stile; geard, edge, and weg becoming 
yard, eye, and way ; fugol and boga becoming fowl and bow ; regen 
and hcegel becoming rain and hail; gim and gigant becoming gem 
and giant. 

The guttural h may (1) drop out, (2) become gh (=f), and 

(3) unite with g and the gh become silent — seolh becoming seal; 
ruh and toll becoming rough and tough; and miht and niht be- 
coming might and night. 

The guttural c may change in sound (1) to the sibilant s ; and 
(2) to the palatal ch — ceder and circul becoming cedar and circle; 
and cild and cin, child and chin. 

The guttural sc changes to the sibilant sh — sceap and fisc becoming 
sheep and fish. 



WORDS 31 

Some changes have little to do with euphony — that of hw to wh, 
cw to qu, and c to k — hivil, cwen, and cyning becoming while, queen, 
and king. Letters have changed places — bridd, forst, and fersc be- 
coming bird, frost, and fresh. 

The orthographic effects have not weakened the language as a 
whole, as they have in modern Greek, for example, in which six 
of the old vowels and diphthongs have weakened to our ee. 

The strong back sounds have changed to middle ; the weak front 
tones, to strong back diphthongs. 

5. It has Stripped Words of their Inflections. — O.E. (1) in- 
dicated the number, case, and gender of nouns, pronouns, 
and adjectives, and (2) marked the person, number, tense, 
and mode of verbs by endings. 1 The grammatical relations 
of these great parts of speech were shown by the termina- 
tions ticketed upon them. 

Mn.E. indicates all these modifications and grammatical 
relations by separate words — auxiliary verbs, adverbs, and 
prepositions, by phrases, and by position in the sentence. 



SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Natural Language. The First 
Words. Roots. Prefixes. Suffixes. Composition of our English 
Vocabulary. Fivefold Effect of the Norman Conquest upon Early 
English Vocabulary. 



1 What these inflectional endings were, when and in what order they fell away, and 
what ones remain will be seen when the several parts of speech are taken up. 



32 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Questions. — Natural language, what ? When first used ? Its 
limitations ? Use now ? What things first denoted by words ? What 
properties of things ? By association, words stand for what now ? 
Theories respecting the origin of words ? Why unable to recover the 
first words ? Verbal language began when ? Roots, what ? Most 
words composed of what ? Prefixes, what ? Suffixes, what ? Rela- 
tion of both to the fundamental root ? Two kinds of suffixes ? The 
office of each ? Illustrate with truths. What does Whitney say of 
the fundamental root, and of prefixes and suffixes ? Wherein does 
Jespersen assent ? dissent ? Original element of our English vocabu- 
lary, what ? The story of the Anglo-Saxon Conquest ? Of the Nor- 
man Conquest ? Normans, who ? Norman-French, what ? What 
three things did Norman-French words come into English to do ? 
What two of these did they do ? In what measure did they do the 
third ? The periods of English ? Names and abbreviations ? What per 
cent of the O.E. words never came into M.E. and Mn.E. ? What O.E. 
verbal habit did the invasion of Norman-French words affect ? and to 
what extent? How affect the O.E. order of words? Illustrate. 
How affect the spelling and pronunciation of O.E. words ? What 
O.E. combinations did these Norman-French words break up ? What 
is true of such combinations as remain ? The change effected in both 
vowels and consonants is of what kind ? Gutturals became what ? 
When not palatalized, the guttural did what ? What consonant 
changes, having little to do with euphony, took place ? What effects 
upon O.E. inflections did the Norman-French have ? How do we now 
indicate the grammatical relations of words ? 

Exercises. — Study the sounds of the O.E. letters in the following 
tables, pronounce the O.E. words found on the preceding pages of 
this chapter, and verify what is there said of the changes in their 
vowel and consonant sounds which O.E. words underwent in becom- 
ing Mn.E. — changes mainly due to Norman-French influence. ' Look- 
ing to the key-words on the next page for the sounds of the italicized 
letters in the list of O.E. examples, pronounce these letters and then 
the words containing them. The consonant sounds are given below. 



WORDS 



33 



APPROXIMATE PRONUNCIATION OF THE OLD ENGLISH 

ALPHABET 







Vowels 




O.E. VOWELS 


key- words 


O. E, EXAMPLES 


a 




father, 


bana, 'murderer.' 


a 




far, 


stan, 'stone.' 


<% 




glad, 


hwa3t, 'what.' 


ce 




fare, 


see, 'sea.' 


e 




men, 


weg, 'way.' 


e 




ale, 


he, 'he.' 


i 




it, 


szge, ' victory.' 


i 




eel, 


win, ' wine.' 







not, 


bonne, ' than.' 







no, 


to, 'to.' 


u 




Ml, 


sunn, ' son.' 


u 




moon, 


wt, ' out. ' 


To make the vowel-chamber for y round the lips for u, and raise 


the tongue for i ; 


for 


y prolong the sound of y. 





Consonants 
c like c in cat. 
cw like qu in quite, 
g like g in go. 

h like h in he, when h is initial. 
h like ch in loch (Scotch), when h is medial 

or final. 
/ like v in over, when / is between two sonants — 

otherwise like our /. 
ng like ng in finder. 
s like s in sing. 
\> like th in thing — usually initial, 
ft like th in this — usually medial or final. 



H. SCH. GRAM. 6 



CHAPTER III 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 

u Trees grow." 

These two words form a Sentence because they make com- 
plete sense. In every sentence something is said about 
something. When two x notions — as of the things trees, and 
the action grow — are brought together in the mind and a 
judgment is reached that one belongs to the other, we have 
a thought. Here trees denotes the things thought about, and 
grow expresses what is thought about them. 

Definition. — A Sentence is a group of words expressing a 
complete thought. 

The word that denotes what we think of and speak of is 
called the Subject; and the word that denotes what we 
think and say of the thing or things named by the subject 
is called the Predicate. 

Definitions 

The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is 
thought. 

1 In logic, the expression of a though t^is said to have three parts. In " Rain is fall- 
ing," rain is subject, falling is predicate, and is is the copula or link, joining the two 
terms into a judgment expressed. 

But, as the copula is often united with the predicate as one word, it is regarded in 
grammar as forming a part of the predicate. 

34 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 35 

The Predicate of a sentence expresses what is thought. 

Few thoughts are expressed in sentences of two words 
each. We describe more fully the thing thought of, and 
express more fully what we think of it. 
" Large trees grow here." 

In this sentence something is said not of all trees but of 

those only that have the quality expressed by large ; and 

what is said of these trees is not that in a general sense they 

grow, but that they grow in a certain place denoted by here. 

"Trees of great size grow in California.' 1 '' 

Here the group of words, of great size, does the work of 
the one word large, and in California does the work of 
here. Such groups are called Phrases (simple). 

Definition. — A Phrase is a group of words denoting 
related ideas* and having a distinct office, but not expressing 
a thought. 

Words added to other words to make their meaning more 
definite are said to modify them. 

Definition. — A Modifier * is a word or group of words 
joined to some part of a sentence to qualify or limit the mean- 
ing. 

In each of the three sentences examined above, it is seen 
that the two essential words are trees and grow. The first 
may be called the Grammatical Subject ; the second, the 
Grammatical Predicate. 

Modifiers are also called adjuncts, enlargements, extensions. 



36 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

The grammatical subject with its modifiers may be called 
the Logical Subject, or the Modified Subject ; the grammatical 
predicate with its modifiers, the Logical Predicate, or the 
Modified Predicate. 

The simple terms subject and predicate, as often used, 
mean grammatical subject 1 and grammatical predicate. 

The grammatical predicate may consist of two or more 
words taken together, as : — 

" Trees have grown " ; " The trees will then have been destroyed" 

Around the grammatical subject and grammatical predi- 
cate, as the two chief parts of every sentence, all the other 
parts are grouped. In studying the subject, it is all-im- 
portant then that we come to discern these two parts at a 
glance ; we can then swiftly and intelligently deal with the 
other words. 2 

INCOMPLETE PREDICATES AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS 

Attribute Complements 

You have learned that in every sentence something is 
said about something ; you will understand therefore that 

1 This subject is also called simple subject, base subject, and subject base. 
Those who use the simple term subject to denote only the complete, or logical, 

subject can hardly be consistent when speaking of the agreement of a word with its 
subject, of the case of the subject, of modifiers of the subject, etc. 

As the work of grammatical analysis is prominently concerned with the two chief 
words of a sentence, it will be found convenient, in speaking of these, to use the 
simple terms subject and predicate. 

2 The division of a sentence into the entire subject and the entire predicate, thus : — 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 37 

thinking is directly concerned with things, and what be- 
longs to things — their attributes. In 

" Corn grows" 

it is asseited that the action growing is an attribute of 
corn. Grows does two things here — it expresses the attri- 
bute and asserts it. In 

" Corn growing," 

growing expresses the action but does not assert ; it does 
not show that a judgment has been reached. In 

u Corn is growing," 

the asserting force is supplied by is. 

Actions are not the only attributes asserted of things ; we 
often assert qualities, as : — 

" Corn is nutritious." 

Is is here an incomplete predicate ; for, although it as- 
serts, nutritious is needed to express the quality asserted of 

" Trees of a large size | grow in California," 

is advised as " the first and simplest step " in the analysis. When all the words are in 
their natural order, this division is quite mechanical ; but when the words are arranged 
otherwise, as in 

" In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, 
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand Pre 
Lay in the fruitful valley," 

it becomes necessary first to find the two chief words, and then to group the modifying 
words on the basis of their relation to these. The first and simplest step thus becomes 
the final step. 



38 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

corn as its attribute. Nutritious completes the predicate ; 
hence it may be a Complement. In 

" Corn is a cereal" 

all the qualities essential to the class, cereal, are here as- 
serted of corn. Is is the incomplete predicate, and cereal is 
the complement. In 

" The sky grows dark" 

the quality darkness, not the action growing, is what 
we chiefly assert of the sky. Growing dark would express 
the complete attribute. 

These words that complete the predicate by helping to 
express the attribute asserted of that which the subject 
names are called Attribute Complements, or Subjective Comple- 
ments. 

Definition. — The Attribute, or Subjective, Complement of 
a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 

Object Complement or Object 

A large class of predicate words require completions 
quite different from those described above. In 

"A cat caught . . ."; "The officer held . . ." ; "The man 
seized . . ." ; "He killed .'..." 

it is plain that the predicates are incomplete, and that 
the names of the things on which action is exerted are 
necessary to make complete sense, as in 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 39 

"A cat caught a mouse" ; "The officer held the thief" ; "The 
man seized a rope " ; "He killed a deer." 

A word that completes the predicate by naming that on 
which the action is exerted may be called the Object Comple- 
ment, 1 or simply the Object. 

Definition. — The Object Complement of a sentence com- 
pletes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. 

COMPOUND SUBJECT, COMPOUND PREDICATE, AND 
OTHER COMPOUND PARTS 

" William and Mary reigned together." 2 

The two names, William and Mary, connected by and, 
make one subject — one thing is asserted of the two persons. 

" The tide ebbs and flows without cessation." 

Ebbs and floics, connected by and, make one predicate — 
two actions are jointly asserted of one thing. 

Two or more connected subjects, having the same predi- 
cate, form a Compound Subject. 

Two or more connected predicates, having the same sub- 
ject, form a Compound Predicate. 



1 The term complement is used in many text-books to denote only the Subjective, 
or Attribute, complement. 

2 Some authorities insist that all such sentences must be regarded as two simple 
sentences contracted. Others admit that a simple sentence may have a compound sub- 
ject, but deny that it can have a compound predicate. Others allow a compound 
subject or a compound predicate when the parts are connected by and but not when 
connected by or or nor. 



40 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Both subject and predicate in the same sentence may be 
compound, as in 

" Robert and his friend read and discussed Dante." 

The (1) attribute complement and the (2) object may be 
compound, as in 

(1) u He is true and good" ; (2) " We love truth and virtue" 
Word and phrase modifiers may be compound, as in 

(1) The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by 
"exercise" ; (2) u The Equinox occurs in March and in September." 

Phrases thus connected form a Compound Phrase. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO MEANING AND USE 

A subject and a predicate may express (1) a direct asser- 
tion, affirmative or negative ; (2) an inquiry ; (3) a command 
or strong wish ; (4) an exclamation. 

A sentence used to make a statement or declare a fact is 
Declarative, as : — 

"The moon revolves around the earth" ; "lam going" ; "I am 
not going." 

A sentence that expresses an inquiry is Interrogative. 
The question may be in the predicate itself, as : — 

"/she at home?" 

Or in the subject itself, as : — 

" Who is at home?" 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PABTS 41 

Or in some word joined to subject or predicate, as : — 

"Which plan was adopted?" " Whom did you see?" " When 
did you meet ? " " What is your reason ? " 

When the interrogative word is in the predicate, the sub- 
ject is generally after the asserting word, and the sentence 
is said to be inverted. 1 

The analysis of an interrogative sentence is the same 
as that of the corresponding declarative, as : — 

(1) "Is he at home?" "He is at home." (2) "What is your 
reason?" "My reason is this." (3) "Whom did you choose?" 
"We chose (= did choose) John." 

A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty 
is Imperative, as : — 

" Come at once " ; " Help me." 2 

A command may be expressed in a statement or a ques- 
tion, as : — 

"Thou shalt not steal " ; "You must go " ; " Will you leave the 
room instantly ? " 



A wish may be expressed so as to resemble an impera- 
tive, as : — 

"Part 3 we in friendship" ; "Long live 3 the king!" 

1 The interrogative word, being- the most important in the mind of the speaker, 
naturally stands at the beginning of the sentence, an emphatic position. 

2 The subject of an imperative sentence — you or thou — is regularly omitted. If 
used, it follows the verb, as in "Help thou me." 

3 This use of a sentence to express a strong wish is called optative. We and 
king, the subjects of part and live, are in the first and third persons. 



42 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The true imperative is always in the second person. 

"Let it be so," " Be it so," and "May it be so," 

do not differ much in meaning, but only the first is im- 
perative; the subject of let being understood, while that 
of be and may be is it. 

A sentence that expresses sudden thought or strong 
feeling is exclamatory, as : — 

"What a happy creature Polly is!" "How unexpected this 
happiness to us !" 

Such sentences, introduced by the interrogative Jiovj and 
what, were originally questions ; but the interrogative force 
lias been lost, and they may be classed as exclamatory. 

A sentence in the declarative, interrogative, or imperative 
form may be exclamatory when uttered mainly to give 
vent to feeling. The writer must determine when the 
exclamation point should take the place of the period or 
the interrogation mark, as : — 

" It is impossible ! " " Is it possible ! " " Think of the absurdity 
of it ! " 

Definitions 

A Declarative Sentence is one that is used to affirm or deny. 
An Interrogative x Sentence is one that expresses a question. 

1 When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another sentence, it may be 
(1) direct ; as, " He asked me, ' What shall I dof " or (2) indirect ; as, " He asked 
me what he should do." The capitalization and punctuation of the two are not 
the same — as is seen. 






THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PABTS 43 

An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command or 
an entreaty. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden thought 
or strong feeling. 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — A Sentence. Its Parts — Sub- 
ject and Predicate. Subject — Grammatical and Logical. Predicate 

— Grammatical and Logical. A Phrase. A Modifier. Complements 

— Attribute and Object. Compound Parts of a Sentence — Subject, 
Predicate, and Word and Phrase Modifiers. Sentences — Declarative, 
Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. 

Questions. — What is a thought ? A sentence ? What two parts 
of a sentence ? Define each. A copula ? and why grammar makes 
it a part of the predicate ? What is a simple phrase ? A modifier ? 
What other names for a modifier ? What is a grammatical subject ? 
A grammatical predicate ? A logical, or modified, subject ? A logi- 
cal, or modified, predicate ? What other names for a modified sub- 
ject ? Of how many words may a grammatical predicate consist ? 
Why important to detect the grammatical subject and the grammatical 
predicate at a glance ? Why is it sometimes difficult to do this ? An 
incomplete predicate, what ? What is that which completes such a 
predicate called ? What two common kinds of complements are 
there ? Define and illustrate each. What is a compound subject ? 
A compound predicate ? A compound word modifier ? A compound 
phrase modifier ? Define and illustrate them all. Define and illus- 
trate a declarative sentence. Define and illustrate an interrogative 
sentence. In what words may the question be ? Illustrate. What 
is a direct question ? An indirect ? Illustrate. What difference in 
the capitalization of the two ? When is a sentence said to be 
inverted ? Define and illustrate an imperative sentence. What 



44 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

sentences other than imperative may express a command ? Illustrate. 
How may a true imperative sentence be known ? The subject of an 
imperative sentence is what ? Is it usually expressed ? Define and 
illustrate an exclamatory sentence. Such sentences, introduced by 
how or what, were once of what kind ? When do declarative, inter- 
rogative, and imperative sentences become exclamatory ? The divi- 
sion of sentences into these four kinds based upon what ? 

Exercises. — (1) "Robert and his friend read and discussed Dante 
and Milton"; (2) " He neither writes nor speaks like a native 
Englishman." 

Resolve (1) into eight separate sentences. Name its three com- 
pound parts. Dropping neither and nor from (2), resolve it into 
two sentences. What part of (2) is compound ? Take the quotation 
from Longfellow, foot-note, p. 37, and give (l)the logical and the 
grammatical subject of it ; (2) the logical and the grammatical predi- 
cate of it ; (3) the single word modifiers in it ; (4) the simple phrase 
modifiers in it ; and tell (5) whether the predicate in it is incomplete 
or not. Are those in (1) and (2) above incomplete or not ? 



CHAPTER IV 

CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 

We have divided sentences into parts, and called these 
the Subject, the Predicate, the Complement, and the Modi- 
fier, but we have not yet examined the offices of the 
separate words of those parts. 

All the words of our language are grouped into eight 
classes according to their different uses in the sentence 
— these classes are called Parts of Speech. 

"Mary's mother, the wife of the merchant, bought her daughter 
a house a few months ago" ; "My son, make wisdom the object 
of your life, for it is the principal thing." 

The words italicized in these two sentences have dif- 
ferent offices — (1) mother is subject, (2) house is object, 
(3) Mary's is a possessive modifier of mother, (4) tuife is 
explanatory of mother, (5) merchant is chief word in a phrase, 
(6) daughter is indirect object of an action, (7) months 
has an adverbial use, (8) son is independent by address, 
(9) object is objective complement, and (10) thing is attribute 
complement. But, while discharging each a special office, 
they all have one office — they name persons and mere things. 

A word used as a name is called a Noun. 

45 



46 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

The subject is the chief name in any sentence; there 
can be no complete sentence without a name, or some 
substitute for a name, used as subject. 

" I hear that you advised him to see her" ; " Who will go?" 
u The house which stood here was burned" ; " That is right." 

The words italicized in these sentences are not names, 
but they connote relations to the speaker, denote persons 
and things, and stand for their names. I represents the 
speaker; you, the one spoken to; him and her, persons 
unnamed here but previously mentioned; ivho stands for 
a name which the one addressed is asked to supply ; 
which stands for house; and that, for the name of some- 
thing which it points out. 

A word that takes the place of a noun is called a 
Pronoun; and the word for which a pronoun stands is 
called its Antecedent. 

We have seen that every sentence must contain an 
asserting word. 

The word that expresses an assertion is called a Verb. 

A verb may make a complete predicate, or it may 
require some other word or words to complete it, as : — 

" Grass grows" ; " Grass is green." 

A verb made up of two or more words may be called 
a Verb Phrase, as : — 

"The house has just been built." 



CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 47 

There are verbal forms, usually classed with the verb, 
though they do not assert, as: — 

11 I went to see him"; "The lady, seeing her danger, sprang 
hack" ; "I hlame you for telling that." 

To see him is a phrase modifying ivent; seeing her 
danger is a phrase modifying lady ; and for telling that 
is a phrase modifying blame. See is here an Infinitive; 
seeing is a Participle; and telling is a Nounal Verb. The 
infinitive is usually preceded by to, and the participle 
and the nounal verb generally end in -ing, -ed, or -en. 
Like verbs, these words here express action and take 
objects ; but, unlike true verbs, they lack asserting force 
— see, seeing, and telling here assert nothing. 

A substantive 1 (or its equivalent) and a verb are the 
essential parts of every sentence — one naming the object 
of thought, and the other telling what the thing named does 
or is. All the other words of a sentence are joined directly 
or indirectly to these important words. 

Indeed, a substantive and a verb may make a sentence 
without the help of other words, as: — 

"Rain falls" ; " Trees grow." 

We have seen that a pronoun may be substituted for a 
noun, but there is no substitute for a verb in the sentence. 

1 A substantive is a noun or a pronoun representing something which has, or is 
regarded as haying, an independent existence, and which can be made an object of 
thought. 



48 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

A noun or a pronoun may by itself be the subject of a 
sentence ; but, as you have learned, words are often joined 
to the subject to describe more fully the person or thing 
named, as in 

"Tivo holiest old farmers were chosen" ; "Firm and fearless, he 
pressed forward." 

Old and honest modify farmers by telling what kind of 
farmers are here spoken of, and two tells how many farmers 
of this kind are spoken of. Firm and fearless express quali- 
ties of the person represented by he, and thus modify the 
pronoun. 

A word modifying a noun or a pronoun is called an 
Adjective. 

Honest old farmers expresses the qualities that all 
farmers have plus those denoted by honest and old; but, 
as there are some farmers not honest and old, honest old 
farmers applies to fewer persons than farmers does. The 
adjective, then, increases the meaning, but decreases the appli- 
cation, of the noun. 

But from the second example above it will be seen that 
adjectives do not always limit the application of the word 
they modify. He refers to a particular person, and firm 
and fearless simply call attention to some of his qualities. 

" Jack has returned from a long ocean voyage." 

Long and ocean tell the kind of voyage, and a tells how 
many. These three words modify voyage — the principal 



CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 49 

word of a phrase. It will be seen, then, that a noun or a 
pronoun in any part of a sentence may take modifiers like 
those joined to the subject. 

It must be observed that a noun may be used like an 
adjective without becoming an adjective, as in 

" John's friend Henry is expected to-morrow." 

The possessive John's tells whose friend is expected, and 
the explanatory Henry tells what friend. But John's and 
Henry are not adjectives but nouns, for they name, and 
they may be modified as nouns are. In 

"Men of wisdom are respected," 

of wisdom = the adjective wise. Phrases then may be 
i adjectival. 

Just as adjectives are joined to a noun to describe the 
thing named so words are joined to the verb to describe or 
limit the action expressed, as : — 

" He made one foolish speech "; "He once spoke foolishly.'" 

Here once and foolishly modify the verb spoke in much the 
same way that one and foolish modify the noun speech; and 
once and foolishly limit the application of the verb as 
one and foolish limit the application of the noun. Once 
spoke foolishly applies to one instance of the action, but 
conveys more information respecting it than spoke does. 

H. SCH. GRAM. — 4 



50 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

This kind of modifier, then, increases the meaning of the 
verb, but decreases the application of it. 

(1) u TVe commend it highly'''' ; (2) "It was a highly commend- 
able act" ; (8) " He now writes much more legibly.'''' 

In (1), highly, like foolishly above, modifies the verb ; in 
(2), highly modifies the adjective commendable; in (3), now 
and legibly modify the verb, more modifies legibly, and much 
modifies more. 

We have seen that our thoughts and words are con- 
cerned with things and what belong to things — namely, 
their attributes ; that nouns name things ; 1 and that verbs 
and adjectives express attributes of things. 

Just as words that name things are put into a class so 
words that describe attributes are; and, as the verb ex- 
presses the chief attribute, the words that describe attri- 
butes are called Adverbs, 'to verbs/ Since an adverb 
expresses an attribute of an attribute, a word modifying an 
adjective or an adverb, as well as a verb, must be an adverb. 
We may therefore say that 

A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, 
is an adverb. In 

" Londonderry, situated on a famous bay, has had a history," 

the simple phrase, on a famous bay, modifying the modifier 
situated, performs the office of an adverb. There are, then, 
adverb phrases as well as adjective phrases. 

1 The word thing, used without an adjective, as mere, may designate all objects, 
material and immaterial — persons even. 



CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 51 

We find some words that represent neither things nor 
their attributes. They show the relations of things to 
things, and of things to actions and other attributes, as in 

" The house by the river was lifted from its foundation and carried 
across the stream, which was yellow ivith the soil of the freshet." 

By shows the relation (nearness) of the house to the 
river ; from, the relation (separation) of the action of lifting 
to the foundation ; across, the relation (direction) of the 
action of carrying to the stream ; with, the relation (means) 
of the attribute, or quality, yellow to the soil ; and of, the 
relation (possession) of soil to the freshet. Each word — 
by, from, across, icith, and of — is the introductory and the 
connecting word of a phrase modifying a preceding word. 

"Words introducing phrase modifiers and showing the 
relation of things to things, and of things to actions, states, 
and other attributes, are called Prepositions. 

We find another class of words whose chief office is to 
join two sentences into one, as in 

" Life is short and time is fleeting"; " I go but I return " ; " We 
shall not reap if we do not sow." 

Some connecting words join two words or two phrases 
that have the same office in the sentence, as in 

u Time and tide wait for no man"; "He was born of poor but 
industrious parents " j " We hope to spend the winter in London or 
in Paris." 



52 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses are called 
Conjunctions. 1 

" Ah ! this is indeed good news " ; " Hurrah ! our side has won " ; 
"Pshaw! what nonsense is this?" " Oh ! how he must have 
suffered! " 

Ah, hurrah, pshaw, and oh belong neither to the subject 
nor to the predicate. They merely accompany one or the 
other to express strong feeling. Such words are called 
Interjections because interjected, or thrown in. They form 
the eighth and last part of speech. 

The interjection does not enter into the structure of a 
simple sentence and help to form it ; it is therefore hardly 
entitled to be called a part of speech. In connected dis- 
course, it is a quasi-clause. 

Nouns and other parts of speech may be used independ- 
ently, like interjections, without becoming interjections, 

as: — 

" Peace ! peace with honor is now impossible." 

1 Conjunctions and prepositions are alike in that they connect ; but even in this 
office they are unlike (1) in that conjunctions connect clauses, while prepositions do 
not ; (2) in that conjunctions connect coordinate whole phrases, while prepositions con- 
nect only the principal word in a modifying, and hence subordinate, phrase to the word 
modified ; and (3) in that prepositions connect words by showing their relation in sense 
or meaning. For example, in 

" The body and the mind of a child must be trained by a teacher," 

the conjunction and connects the things, body and mind, as joint objects of training ; 
while the preposition of connects the name child to the names body and mind, by 
showing the relation (possession) existing between the child and his body and mind ; 
and the preposition by connects teacher to must be trained by showing the relation 
(agency) between the teacher and the act. 



CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 53 

The eight parts of speech may, for a general view, be 
grouped thus : — 

1. Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs— -the essential parts of a 
sentence. 

2. Adjectives and Adverbs — modifiers. 

3. Conjunctions and Prepositions — connectives. 

4. Interjections — exclamations thrown in. 

THE SAME WORDS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 

The definition of parts of speech implies that the same 
words, differently used, fall into different classes, as in 

(1) "You have found your equal" "They have equal shares,' * 
" Two and two equal four" ; (2) " Throw a stone" " Stone the rep- 
tile," "He built a stone wall" ; (3) " That is a fact," " That fact- 
is not denied," "The man that was chosen declined," "That the 
whole equals the sum of all its parts is an axiom " ; (4) " Past follies 
are forgotten," "The past, at least, is secure," "He rushed past the 
goal," " The train swept past" ; (5) " He turned his back upon us," 
" Come back" " The back settlements," " Back the wagon out." 

Definitions 

A Noun is the name of anything. 
A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being. 
An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. 
An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or 
an adverb. 



54 HIGH school GBAMMAB 

A Proposition is a word tli.it introduces a phrase modifier, 
and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the 
word modified. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or 
clauses. 

An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden 
fooling. 

The Subdivisions, the Modifications, and the History of 
bhese eight Parts of Speech will be found in bhe chapters 

following those thai eoinplote tlio treatment, of the sentence, 

SU1MKCTS OF THI CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Tarts of SpeecL The Noun. 

The Pronoun, The Verb, The Adjective. The Adverb. The Prep- 
osition, The Conjunction. The [nterjeotion. The Grouping of the 

Might Classes. The same Words in Different (Masses. 

Questions.- (hi what basis are words grouped into classes called 
parts of speech? What various oflicos in the sentenoe have nouns'/ 
But what common oilice gives all nouns their name? What is the 
offloe of a pronoun V Its antecedent, what? Office of the verb ? A 
verb phrase, what ? What verb tonus <\o not assert? How distin- 
guished from eaoh other? a substantive? A substantive and a verb 
ni;iy do what? Offioe o{ an adjective? Bffed o\' an adjective upon 
the meaning of the word it. modifies? Upon the application ? illus- 
trate both. Does the adjective always do this? The part of speech 
used Like an adjeotive, but not oneV Illustrate, show that a phraae 

may be adjectival. What part o\' speech modifies the verb much as 

the adjective modifies the noun? [Uustrate. The pertinence of its 
name? What besides verbs do adverbs modify? Illustrate. How 



CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 55 

do we use the word thing, unmodified by an adjective, as mere? An 
adverb phrase ? What part of speech expresses relations? Relations 
between what ? Illustrate. Full office of the preposition ? What 
different things may conjunctions connect ? Illustrate. The three 
points in which, in the office of connecting, conjunctions and preposi- 
tions differ ? Show that interjections do not enter the structure of the 
sentence. Group the parts of speech according to the likeness of 
their office. Show that the same words may be different parts 
of speech. Define the eight parts of speech. 

Exercises. — So far as you can, place in its proper part of speech, as 
noun, pronoun, verb, etc., every word used in the illustrative sen- 
tences of this chapter. 



CHAPTER V 

A COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE ONE 
OF THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 

Sentences, each complete in itself, may be linked together 
to make a longer sentence, as : — 

(1) " The way was long, and the night was cold " ; (2) " Knowledge 
comes, but wisdom lingers"; (3) "We must conquer our vicious 
habits, or they will conquer us." 

Each of these sentences is made up of two distinct parts 
called Clauses; and neither of these clauses, containing 
each a subject and a predicate, is dependent upon the other 
— neither modifies, nor is modified by, the other. 

Such clauses are called Independent Clauses, and, when 
united, they form a Compound Sentence. 

Definitions 

A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its 
predicate. 

An Independent, or Coordinate, Clause is one not dependent 
on another clause. 

The coordinate clauses in the first illustrative sentence 

56 



COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 57 

above are in the same line of thought ; in the second, are in 
contrast ; in the third, in alternation. 

i 'Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is 
master of thee." 

Here we see independent clauses joined in compound 
sentences without a connecting word. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 

Dependent Adjective Clause 

(1) " Wise men are respected"; (2) u Men of wisdom are re- 
spected" ; (3) "Men who are wise are respected." 

If we apply the question, What kind of men? to these 
sentences, the answer is (1) wise, (2) of wisdom, and (3) 
ivho are wise. It is evident that these three expressions 
do the same work — that ivJio are wise, like ivise and of ivis- 
dom, is a modifier of men. But who are wise, though con- 
taining a subject and a predicate, is neither a sentence nor 
an independent clause ; for it does not make complete sense 
and it cannot stand alone — who referring to men in another 
clause for its meaning. 

It is a clause and not a phrase, for it contains a subject 
and a predicate. We call it a dependent clause. 

It here modifies the subject men of the other clause in 
the sentence. It might modify an object, as in 

" We know men who are ivise." 



58 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

Other words that introduce such clauses are which, that, 
when, where, whereby, etc. 

Wlio are wise does the work of the adjective phrase of 
wisdom, and of the adjective ivise. The dependent clause 
ivho are wise is, then, an adjective clause. 

Dependent ISTotjn Clause 

(1) " Wisdom is the principal thing" ; (2) " To be wise is the prin- 
cipal thing" ; (3) u TJiat we should be wise is the principal thing." 

Apply the question. What is the principal thing ? to these 
sentences, and the answer is (1) wisdom, (2) to be wise, and 
(3) that we should be wise. They all do the same work, that 
of subject, hence a phrase or a dependent clause may be the 
subject of a sentence. 

" We know that wisdom is the principal thing." 

Know is an incomplete predicate ; it is completed by the 
dependent object clause that wisdom is the principal thing. 
A dependent clause may be an object, or object complement. 

"Our belief is, that wisdom is the principal thing." 

Is is an incomplete predicate; it is completed by the 
attribute clause, that wisdom is the principal thing. A depend- 
ent clause may be an attribute complement. 

" It is our belief that loisdom is the principal thing." 

The dependent clause, that wisdom is the principal thing,. 
tells what is meant by it, explains it — the subject of the 



COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PBEBICATE 59 

independent clause. A dependent clause may be explan- 
atory. 

" What is meant by ' Wisdom is the principal thing '?" 

Here the dependent clause has the grammatical force and 
office in the phrase, by wisdom is the principal thing, that 
wisdom preceded by by (and modified by some explanatory 
words) would have — that is, it is equivalent to the princi- 
pal word in a phrase. A dependent clause, then, may be 
used as the principal term in a phrase. 

In the preceding chapter, we saw that these five offices of 
dependent clauses are offices which nouns discharge. These 
five dependent clauses are therefore called noun clauses. 

Dependext Adverb Clause 
" He came immediately " ; "Pie came ivhen he ivas called." 

In the first sentence, immediately modifies the predicate 
came by telling when he came — by expressing time. The 
same work is done in the second sentence by the clause 
when he teas called, A dependent clause, then, may express 
time. 

As, after, before, since, till, while, etc., are other words that 
introduce such clauses. 

" He goes where he wishes to goV 

Here the dependent clause, ivhere he ivishes to go, modifies 
the predicate goes by telling the place where he goes. A 
dependent clause, then, may express place. 



60 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Wherever and where . . there are other words that 
introduce such clauses. 

" He came because he was called. 11 

Here the dependent clause modifies the predicate came by- 
telling the cause of his coining — what made him come. 
A dependent clause, then, may express cause. 

As, for, and since are other words that introduce such 

clauses. 

u He came because I saw him here." 

Here the dependent clause tells, not the cause of his com- 
ing, but the cause of my knowing that he came ; it is my 
evidence for what I assert. A dependent clause may express 
evidence. 

For and since are other words that introduce such clauses. 

" He will come if he is called." 

Here the dependent clause modifies the predicate will 
come by telling the condition of his coming. A dependent 
clause may express condition. 

Unless meaning 'if not,' and were and should, without 
connectives, are other words that introduce such clauses. 

u He will not come although he is called." 

Here the clause, although he is called, concedes that a cause 
for coming exists; but in the independent clause it is 
asserted that, in spite of this cause, he will not come. A 
dependent clause may express concession. 



COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 61 

If meaning 'even if/ and though are other words that 
introduce such clauses. 

" He came that he might see you." 

Here the clause, that he might see you, tells the object, or 
purpose, of his coming. A dependent clause may express 
purpose. 

In order that and so that are other words that introduce 
such clauses. 

" He came as he was told to come, by rail." 

Here the clause, as he was told to come, tells the manner of 
his coming. A dependent clause then may express manner. 
As ... so also introduces such clauses. 

" Lincoln was as wise as he was good." 

Here the clause, as he was good, modifies the first as — a 
modifier of wise — and tells the degree of Lincoln's wisdom. 
A dependent clause then may express degree. 

The . . . the and than are other words that introduce 

such clauses. 

" It was so cold that mercury froze." 

Here the dependent clause, that mercury froze, measures 
the degree of the cold by giving the result of it. A de- 
pendent clause then may express result. 

So ... as also introduces such clauses. 

In the preceding chapter we saw that the part of speech 
which, like these ten dependent clauses of time, place, cause, 



62 HIGH SCHOOL G LJ8 

racession, purpose, manner, degree, result, 

lies a pi . an adjective, or an ad\ ailed an 

adverb. .impendent clauses are adverb clauses then. 

s i noNs 

A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb, 
or a noun. 

S \ .. \ L8SSD WITH RESPECT TO FORM 

A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject and 
te, either or both of which may be compound. 

A Compound Sentence is one composed of two or more inde- 
pendent, or coordinate, clauses. 

A Complex Sentence is one composed of an independent, 
or principal, clause and one or more dependent clauses. 

We have seen that sentences, subjects and predic 

\nnpleir. d word and phrase modifiers 

may be compound. We now add tV 

Independent and dependent clauses may be compound, as in 

•• When morning dawned : . •• They that 

s torn and . :ll mid it " ; "Who has not fa 

:h in time 
*• If th<: i -ind the wind Motos, we shall set sail." 

FHE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Clauses. Independent Clan 
Corny ind S Clauses — Adjective, Xoivn, and 

Adverb. Compound ( 



COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

Questions. — What, is a clause ? An independent ela i 
poun< thought >w to 

that of the first ? . joined l. 

jective clause = what ? J. 
ify what word ? What words i 
clauses ? Whi 

e perform ? Jllus\ ch a clause is fitly* De- 

and illustrate the ten kinds of adi is — 

net. ions or conjnnci >rbs — may each clause be Knt 

and connected to the word it modi fie 

a simple tnpound :-. With 

ect to what an ,-s thus classed ? 

Exercises. — Write three compound A fence 

ing the clauses of the first ; yet connecting the clauses of the 
and nor connecting the clauses of the third. Write three complex 

ea the adjective clauses of which shall be introdu 
tha^ which, and where. Write ten complei 
an adverb clause — H; a time introduced by 

place clause introduced by v:hcr^ver ..troduced 

by /or; '4 ; an evidence clause introduced by /or; (6) a condition 
clause introduced by unless; rf jj a itroduced by 

?/; (7) a purpose clause introduced by so that ; (8) a manner ch 
introduced by as . . . so ; (9) a degree clause introduced by tftaii ; 
and (10) a result clause introduced by so . . . as. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE SENTENCE {Completed) 

We have seen that sentences may be complex ; we now 
add that 

Phrases may be complex, as in 

(1) Two honest old men were chosen"; (2) u He writes now 
much more legibly" ; (3) " The children of this country of ours 
have great advantages"; (4) "Londonderry, situated in the north 
of Ireland, has had a famous history." 

In (1), old modifies men, honest modifies old men, and two 
modifies honest old men; two honest old is a complex adjective 
phrase made up of single word modifiers. In (2), the adverb 
more modifies the adverb legibly, and is in turn modified by 
the adverb much; much more legibly is a complex adverb 
phrase made up of single word modifiers. 

In (3), country, the principal word of the prepositional 
adjective phrase of this country is modified by another ad- 
jective phrase, of ours. The whole phrase, of this country 
of ours, is a complex adjective phrase made up of two adjective 
phrases, and modifies the noun children. 

In (4), the adjective situated, modifying Londonderry, is 
itself modified by the simple adverb phrase in the north, the 

64 



THE SENTENCE 65 

principal word of which, north, is modified by the adjective 
phrase of Ireland, The whole phrase in the north of Ireland 
is a complex adverb phrase made up of two phrases — one 
adverb and one adjective. 

The highly complex phrase, on a beautiful bay in the 
north of Ireland, would contain two complex phrases — on 
a beautiful bay in the north and in the north of Ireland. 

A phrase composed of at least one word modified by 
another word or another phrase is called a Complex 
P 1 rase. 

Sentences and phrases may be complex ; we now add that 
Clauses may be Complex, as in 

(1) "Hope thinks that nothing is difficult; despair tells us that 
difficulty is insurmountable " ; (2) "The Bible says that, if our right 
l eye leads us into sin, we should pluck it out ; it says also that, if our 
I right hand thus offends, we should cut it off" ; (3) "An untruth is 
1 something not true, though the one who tells it believes that it is true ; 
a lie is something false, told, with intent to deceive, by one who knows 
that it is false " ; (4) " When the question was asked whether oysters 
were healthy or unhealthy during certain months, and a physician re- 
plied, ' I never heard an oyster complain of an ache or an ail,' he was 
only insisting on the difference which exists between the synonyms 
healthful and healthy " ; (5) " Wellington did not write as well after 
the battle of Waterloo as he wrote before, because his constant fear 
was, that what the conqueror of Napoleon said would be read by 
everybody." 

Sentences (1), (2), and (3) are compound; and the two 
independent clauses in each, separated by the semicolon, 
are complex. 

H. SCH. GRAM. — 5 



66 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Each independent clause in (1) contains a noun clause beginning 
with that, and each noun clause is the object of a verb in the principal 
clause — of thinks in one, and of tells in the other. 

Each independent clause in (2) contains a complex noun clause 
beginning with that, and each noun clause is the object of a verb in 
the principal clause — of says in the one, and of says in the other. 
The first complex noun clause contains a condition clause, if . . . sin, 
modifying should pluck ; the second complex noun clause contains a 
condition clause, if . . . offends, modifying should cut. 

The first independent clause in (3) contains a complex concessive 
clause, though . . . true ; one, the subject of the leading part of this 
complex clause, is modified by the adjective clause, who tells it; be- 
lieves, the predicate, has as object the noun clause, that it is true ; one, 
the principal word in a prepositional phrase in the second independent 
clause, is modified by a complex adjective clause, who . . . false; and 
knows, the predicate of the principal part of this clause, has as object 
the noun clause, that . . . false. 

Sentences (4) and (5) are complex. 

The independent clause of (4) has he for subject, and was insisting 
for grammatical predicate ; was insisting is modified by the compound 
time clause, when . . . ail, — and connecting the two parts of this com- 
pound clause ; question, the subject of the first part, is modified by the 
explanatory noun clause, whether . . . months, and of this clause oys- 
ters is subject, and were is grammatical predicate ; physician is subject 
of the second part ; replied, the predicate, has for its object the noun 
clause, / . . . ail ; and difference, the principal word of the prepo- 
sitional phrase beginning with on, is modified by the adjective clause, 
which . . . healthy. 

The independent clause of (5) has Wellington for subject, and did 
write for predicate ; the degree clause, as . . . before, modifies the first 
as ; the predicate, did write, is modified by the complex cause clause, 
because . . . everybody ; was, the predicate of the leading part of this 



THE SENTENCE 67 

clause, is completed by the complex attribute noun clause, that . . . 
everybody ; and ichat . . . said is an adjective clause modifying the 
omitted subject of would be read, — zohat, the object of said, turning 
into some other word, as which, when the omitted subject, as that or 
thing, of icould be read, is supplied. 

It is obvious that the real difficulties in writing, and in 
analyzing what others have written, are encountered in such 
intricate sentences as these — sentences scattered thickly- 
over the pages of literature. 

WHAT MAY BE THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE 

1. A Noun may be the Subject of a sentence. The name 
(1) of any material thing; (2) of any mental thing; (3) of 
a quality; (4) of an action; (5) of a person; (6) an adjec- 
tive; and (7) an adverb, used as a noun; and (8) a word 
as word, as: — 

(1) "Frogs croak"; (2) "The memory fails" ; (3) " The width is 

great " ; (4) " Seeing is believing " ; (5) " Buskin is dead " ; (6) "The 
good are happy " ; (7) " Now is the time " ; and (8) "And is a con- 
junction." 

2. A Pronoun may be the Subject, as : — 

" Thou art the man" ; " Who is the man?" u That is mine." 

3. The Infinitive Phrase, simple, or with added w^ords, 
as: — 

" To see is to believe" ; "To tell lies is contemptible. 

4. A Nounal Verb Phrase, as : — 

" Telling lies is contemptible." 



68 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

5. Any Phrase, as : — 

" ' Now or never!' roused all to action"; " For me to do that 
would be wrong." 

6. A Clause, (1) simple, (2) compound, or (3) complex, as : — 

(1) " That we obey is a duty " ; (2) "That we should obey and that 
■we should do it cheerfully are duties hard to learn" ; (3) " ' The labor 
-we delight in physics pain' is a saying of Shakespeare's." 



MODIFIERS (OR ADJUNCTS) OF THE SUBJECT 

A Modifier of the Subject may be (1) an adjective, alone 
or with adverbial modifiers ; (2) a participle, alone or with 
added words ; (3) an infinitive phrase, simple or with added 
words; (4) a substantive in the possessive, alone or with 
adjective modifiers; (5) a substantive explanatory, alone 
or with adjective modifiers ; and (6) a prepositional phrase, 
the principal word of which is a substantive or a nounal 
verb, as : — 

(1) u Tower fid engines are built," "Far more powerful engines are 
built" ; (2) "The train approaching is the Empire State Express," 
"The engineer, seeing the danger in time, saved his train" ; (3) The 
time to choose had come," "The time to choose his calling had 
come"; (4) "Father's advice was this," "My good old father's 
advice was this " ; (5) " The English historian Macaulay wrote ' Lays 
of Ancient Rome,'" "Duncan, the trustful old king, went to Mac- 
beth's castle"; (6) "No works of man 1 may rival thee," "The 
reasons for doing this immediately were given." 

1 Phrases like this, introduced by of and equivalent to words in the possessive, 
.are certainly adjectives in use. Phrases introduced by prepositions other than of 



THE SENTENCE 69 

MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE 

The Predicate, simple or compound, may be modified 
(1) by an adverb, alone or with adverbial modifiers ; * (2) by 
a prepositional phrase -with, a substantive or a nounal verb 
as principal word ; (3) by a substantive, unmodified or 
modified; (4) by an infinitive phrase, simple or with other 



are general!}- adverbial, it is thought, though frequently joined to substantives and 
classed as adjective modifiers. 

The adverbial phrases are joined to substantives (1) through the omission of a 
participle, or (2) through the verbal nature of the modified substantive, as: — 

(1) "The accident (occurring) on Monday," "The book (lying) under the paper," 
"A picture (painted) in water-colors"; (2) " A peep into fairyland (peeped into 
fairyland), 1 ' "A struggle for life" (struggled for life), "Appointment to office" 
(appointed to office). 

It may be objected to this view of the adverbial nature of such phrases that 
if we hold, as we do, that when and where clauses may be adjectival, as in 

"The place where {—on which) you stand is holy ground"; "Youth is the 
time ichen (=in which) the seeds of character are sown," 

we should allow when and where phrases to be adjectival, when following substan- 
tives and apparently modifying them. 

1 Adjectives, adverbs, participles, infinitives, and nounal verbs may have these 
different kinds of adverbial modifiers. 

Though not here trying to classify adverbial words and phrases, we may say that 
they express the modifications of (1) time, (2) place, (3) manner, (4) degree, (5) cause, 

(6) purpose, (T) condition, and (S) concession (all of which modifications are ex- 
pressed, as we have seen, by clauses), as: — 

(1) "Come early,"'' "The lights shone at intervals" "That night they caught 
nothing"; (2) "He stopped there,"'' "He went to the woods," "Which way did he 
go?" (3) "The wind blew furiously" "The rain fell in torrents'' ; (4) "That is 
good enough," "The wall is ten feet high," " He was brave to temerity" ; (5) Why 
are you so still?" "He suffered from heat" ; (6) " He went there for his health" ; 

(7) " Without help you won't succeed" ; (S) " Without help he did succeed." 



70 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB 

words; (5) by a substantive modified by a participle, and 
forming with it an absolute phrase grammatically independ- 
ent, yet having the force of an adverb ; and (6) by an 
adverb clause, as : — 

(1) "We travel rapidly" "We may travel much more rapidly" ; 
(2) "We rested under a spreading oak" "I have heard of their 
running away" ; (3) They went home," "They sailed three days" ; 
(4) "I shall be glad to go" "I shall be pleased to see you at 
any time"; (5) '•''Our lessons being ended, we started for the 
woods"; and (6) "When our lessons were ended, we started for 
the woods." 

The object may be classed with the modifiers of the 
predicate; but so distinct are its functions from those of 
other modifiers that it seems best to treat it separately. 

Two kinds of objects are commonly recognized — the 
Direct Object and the Indirect Object. 

1. The Direct 1 Object may be (1) the Passive, or Suffer- 
ing, Object or (2) the Factitive Object. 



1 When a direct object names the action, or a variety of the action expressed by 
the verb itself, it may be called a cognate object, as in 

"He lived a useful life"; "She sang- a song" ; "Trip it as you go. " 

Some grammarians mention the cognate object, give illustrations like those above 
that directly and obviously name the action denoted by the verb, and suggest that 
it be treated as an adverbial adjunct. 

Others make it of much importance, extending its scope to include factitive 
objects, etc. This is a brief outline of their treatment of it : — 

Every verb contains a noun. This noun can always be expressed by a verbal 
noun, and often by a noun without a verbal ending, as : — 



1 



THE SENTENCE 71 

The Passive/ or Suffering, Object denotes that on which 
the action expressed by the verb is expended, as in 

u He killed a bear'''' ; " She mailed a letter." 

The Factitive Object denotes the prodnct of the action 

expressed by the verb, as in 

44 She made a cake" ; ;t I wrote a letter." 

2. The Indirect, 1 or Dative, Object denotes the one in- 
terested in, and affected by, the action expressed by the 
verb, as in 



" I gave him 2 


a i 


vatch" ; "He p 


aid us 


our wages/' 


Verb 




Verbal Noun 




Xoun 


lives 




living 




life 


plays 




playing 




(a) play 


gives 




giving 




gift 


assert 




asserting 




assertion 



The cognate object is distinguished from other objects by the test question, 

Does it tell in what the contained noun consists ? The following examples illus- 
trate : — 

"I paid a dime''' (cog. obj.) ; "I paid the servant" (suf. obj.). 

"I painted the pictures" (cog. obj.); "I painted the door'' 1 (suf. obj.). 

"He struck the 7wrse (suf. obj.) a blow (cog. obj.). 

"He taught the boy (suf. obj.) music (cog. obj.). 

1 Some grammarians extend the scope of the indirect object to include all 
i adverbial expressions essential to the full expression of the verbal notion, as : — 

"I dealt with the grocer"; ""We longed for your return'''; "The accident 
deprived him of sight." 

It would seem that the sentences do not make complete sense without the help 
of the italicized phrases. 

2 When a preposition is placed before the substantive, it and the substantive 
become an adverbial phrase; as, "I gave a watch to him" 



72 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Complex Phrases — three kinds. 
Complex Clauses — many kinds. What may be Subject of a Sentence ? 
The Modifiers of the Subject. The Modifiers of the Predicate. The 
Object — Direct, Indirect, Passive, Factitive, Cognate. 

Questions. — What is a complex adjective phrase made up of 
simple word modifiers ? A complex adverb phrase of the same kind ? 
Illustrate each. A complex adjective phrase made up of adjective 
phrases ? A complex adverb phrase — one adverb and one adjective ? 
Illustrate each. Define a complex phrase. A complex clause. What 
are the different kinds of complex clauses in the three compound and 
two complex illustrative sentences of the chapter ? Of what clauses 
is each complex clause in these sentences composed ? What names, 
and what parts of speech used as nouns may be the subject of a 
sentence ? What other things than nouns may be so used ? Illustrate. 
What various modifiers may a subject have ? Illustrate. May other 
nouns than the subject have the same? Phrases introduced by what 
preposition are adjectival ? Phrases introduced by other prepositions 
are joined to substantives through omission of what ? Through the 
nature of what ? The predicate may be modified by what ? Illustrate. 
Adverbs and adverb phrases may express what modifications ? Illus- 
trate. What besides the predicate may have adverbial modifiers ? 
Subdivide the direct object. What do the passive, the factitive, and 
the indirect object each denote ? Some extend the cognate object to 
mean what ? The indirect object to mean what ? Illustrate each 
extension. 

Exercises. — Classify as noun, pronoun, verb, etc., all the words in 
the five compound and complex illustrative sentences in this chapter. 
Find in these sentences all the illustrations there of simple, compound, 
and complex modifiers, and of other compound parts of the sentence. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE NOUN 

In the expression of thought, the various words of a 
sentence have diverse offices. Classifying words with re- 
gard to their offices, we have the Parts of Speech. Of these 
we have seen that there are seven — the Noun, the Pronoun, 
the Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, and the 
Conjunction — eight if we add the Interjection. 

These parts of speech are not on the same footing as 
respects 

1. Age. — The adverb and the conjunction, at least, are 
in their present forms later than the other parts of speech. 

2. Origin. — " Although adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, 
and conjunctions are known to have been formed in various 
ways, yet all these parts of speech may safely be regarded 
as having originated in the declension of nouns and pro- 
nouns." In this judgment of Wrightson's, philologers sub- 
stantially agree. 

3. Importance. — We can express a thought with only a 
verb to denote the action, and a noun or pronoun to denote 
the person or thing putting it forth. 

The Noun, the Name. — This part of speech is called 
noun, not from any of its relations to other words in the 

73 



74 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

sentence, but because, whatever its relation, the noun al- 
ways names. 

• The Derivation of rTouns. — The roots from which nouns 
are derived denote actions or qualities, and are called verbal, 
or predicative, roots. 1 

About this nucleus root, derivative affixes — prefixes and 
suffixes — gather, and form with it the base, or stem, of the 
noun. To this base are added the. inflectional suffixes to 
indicate modifications, and the relations of the word to 
other words in the sentence. About the root tru, for in- 
stance, in 

u Trw-th-s and un-tru-th-s were spoken" ; " We speak for tru-ih-' > & 
sake," 

cluster the derivative affixes -th and un to form with it the 
base of the nouns truths and untruths; to truth and untruth 
is added the inflectional suffix -s to indicate plurality ; and 
to truth is appended the inflectional suffix - ? s to express case 
relation to sake. 

1 The root of a noun does not necessarily denote the most essential quality or action 
of the thing named, only its most obtrusive. The sky, a shower, and scum, for in- 
stance, have this noticeable, though accidental, feature ; they cover, hide, conceal. This 
the root sk*iof the nouns sky, shower (O.E. scur), and scum, and of the verb and 
adjective obscure, signifies. 

Marking at first a single quality or act of the object, the word comes, by association, 
to denote the object having or exerting them all, to denote our complex idea of that 
object. 

Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived — as Smith from 
the man's office of smoothing, or White from his color, or Florida from the flowers 
found there — and however significant at first, the name soon ceases to denote action 
or quality, and becomes really meaningless except as a designation. 



THE NOUN 



75 



Inflectional suffixes abound in languages in the synthetic 
stage of growth, and in some languages that, like ours, have 
reached the analytic stage ; but, in analytic languages 
generally, these " suffixes have perished wholesale, and the 
base is left to do almost universal duty." 

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS 



Common J 



Concrete 



Abstract x 



/'Individual, boy, book, thing, ship, man, wheat, 

iron, substance. 
Collective, army, crowd, mob, fleet, jury, herd, 
w flock. 

'whiteness, vice, wisdom, existence, (the) sleep, 

length, 
beauty, (the) singing, humility, virtue, vanity, 
ugliness. • 



1 Plato, Sarah, Victoria, God, Saturn, France, Maine, Monday, 
June, Herbert Spencer, President McKinley, John Stuart 
Mill. 

Definitions 

A Noun is the name of anything. 

A Common Noun is the name which belongs to all things 
of a class. 

A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual. 

A Concrete Noun is the name of a thing belonging to a 
class and considered as having qualities. 



1 By means of derivative suffixes, abstract nouns are made out of adjectives and 
verbs ; as width from wide, rapidity from rapid, wickedness from wicked, impor- 
tance from important, proof from prove, and existence from exist. 

For practical purposes, the division of nouns into common and proper is sufficient c 



76 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, an act, or a 
state, considered apart from the concrete thing to which it 
belongs. 

An Individual Noun is the name of one thing of a class, or 
of several things considered separately. 

A Collective Noun is the name of several things of a class 
considered together. 

Old English is synthetic, that is, it expresses grammatical 
relations by inflections; Modern English is analytic, it lias 
lost many of the O.E. inflections. It follows that many 
of the meanings and uses of words formerly indicated by 
inflection are not thus indicated now. 

The changes in the meaning and in the use of words, 
whether marked by changes of form or not, constitute 
their Modifications, 

Definition. — Modifications of the Parts of Speech are 
changes in their meaning and use, and in their form when 
form is employed. 

Nouns and Pronouns have four Modifications — Number, 
Gender, Person, and Case. 



In a minute subdivision, the classes overlap. Pluralizing the noun often effects this ; 
as, beauty, beauties of the Court; license, licenses were granted. The article some- 
times effects this ; as, youth, a youth, the youth; peerage, the peerage of England. 

Proper nouns are really concrete, the persons or things named by them have quali- 
ties. But if, as above, concrete nouns are restricted in their scope, the distinction 
between proper nouns and concrete may be justified. 

Indeed, in some real sense, proper nouns may fade into common and the distinction 
between these two classes vanish; as, "His Mondays are his busy days' 1 ; "The 
Browns were there " ; " He is the Solon of this age." 



THE NOUN 77 

NUMBER 

Definitions 

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes one thing or more than one. 

The Singular Number denotes one thing. 

The Plural 1 Number denotes more than one thing. 

Most nouns in English form their plural by adding -s or 
-es to the singular. But, besides this regular way, there are 
four irregular ways. 

Rule. — The Plural of Nouns is regularly 2 formed by 
adding -s or -es to the Singular. 

1 There was once a dual number ; traces of it are seen in the O.E. pronouns. Its 
endings, according to Sayce, Encye. Br! tannic a. X., 40, were the primitive forms from 

i which the plural endings were derived. Peile, Primer of Philology, says, though 
doubtfully, "The dual forms are apparently later modifications of the plural." 

2 This regular way of forming the plural and three of the irregular ways, have come 
to us from O.E. Only masculine nouns in one of the two O.E. declensions — see p. 

— form their plurals in -as, which weakened into -es, now usually shortened to -s. 

It is customary to ascribe to Norman-French influence the generalizing of this -s into 

cur common plural sign. But Professor Jespersen, Progress in Language, objects 

<1) that the growth of a plural -s cannot be separated from that -S, in 

which French influence is not claimed ; (2) that long before the Conquest the plural -s 

extended to nouns with other plural endings ; (3) that -s became universal in the 

th earlier than in the South, where French influence was strongest ; (4) that -s was 

not then used to the same extent as now as a French plural ending; and (5) that the 

rman -S and the O.E. -es we: r four hundred years in English. 

He then adds : "A greater influence upon English than that exercised by the Galli- 

I cized Normans, must be ascribed to the Danish Vikings, who. for such a long time, 

were acting a prominent part in Britain. ... As for the language, it should be borne 

Iin mind that the tongue spoken by the Danes was so nearly akin with the native dialects 
[of English speech], that the two peoples could understand one another without much 
I difficulty. *' 

" In A-S., as in other Germanic tongues, the declension in -n was encroaching upon 
that in -s. Foreign influence turned the tables ; the Danes had no plurals in -s : the 
ans had the -s plurals but no -n." — Francis A. March. 



78 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

Most of the nouns coming under this' rule add -s rather 
than -es — the governing principle being that nouns ending 
in a sound which unites with that of s add -s. To this rule 
there are exceptions : — 

First Exception. — Some nouns in o after a consonant add 
-es, as : — 

negro, negroes ; echo, echoes ; motto, mottoes ; cargo, cargoes ; 
volcano, volcanoes ; calico, calicoes ; torpedo, torpedoes. 

Second Exception. — Some nouns in f or fe add -es after 
changing the f to v, 1 as : — 

calf, calves ; leaf, leaves ; wolf, wolves ; knife, knives ; life, lives ; 
wife, wives. 

Third Exception. — ISTouns in y after a consonant add -es 
after changing y into i, 2 as : — 

city, cities ; colloquy, colloquies 3 ; glory, glories ; spy, spies ; fancy, 
fancies ; lady, ladies ; lily, lilies ; daisy, daisies ; vanity, vanities. 

But nouns in o or y after a vowel, some nouns in o after a 
consonant, and most nouns in f and fe follow the principle 
above, as : — 



1 This change of the surd to the sonant in spelling suggests the tendency to this 
change in pronunciation when the spelling is unchanged — as (1) of the surd th in 
oath, cloth, etc., to the sonant th in oaths, cloths, etc. ; (2) of the s-sound of the plural 
ending after a sonant to the z-sound, as in days, eggs, etc. ; and (3) of the s-sound in 
the noun grease to the z-sound in the verb grease and the adjective greasy. 

2 Perhaps we should saj r that Mn.E. has in the singular changed the O.E. ending ie 
(Jadie, glorie, fancie) toy. According to Mason, some writers retain the y in the 
plural of proper names, as in the Henrys, the Jfarys, etc. 

3 In qu, u is regarded as a consonant. 



THE NOUN 79 

cameo, cameos ; cuckoo, cuckoos ; trio, trios ; day, days ; chim- 
ney, chimneys ; piano, pianos ; tyro, tyros ; belief, beliefs ; roof, 
roofs ; fife, fifes ; strife, strifes ; sofa, sofas. 

When the singular ends in a sound that does not blend 
with that of s, -es is added as a distinct syllable, as : — 

box, boxes ; brush, brushes ; ditch, ditches ; gas, gases ; lens, 
lenses ; topaz, topazes ; horse, 1 horses ; cage, cages ; prize, prizes ; 
niche, niches. 

First 2 Irregular Way of Forming the Plural — Adding -en, 

— In the four nouns : — 

ox, oxen ; child, children ; brother, brethren and brothers ; cow, 
kine and cows. 

Second 2 Irregular Way — Change of Internal Vowel. — In 

the six nouns : — 

foot, feet ; goose, geese ; man, men ; tooth, teeth ; louse, lice ; 
mouse, mice. 

Third 2 Irregular Way — Without Change from the Singular. 

— These nouns illustrate the method : — 

1 The final e in horse, cage, etc., is silent, hence the last sound is that of a conso- 
nant. By Rule I. for spelling, p. 143, final e drops when -es is added. 

2 Oxa, fot, and hus, chapter IX, give us the originals of our plurals (1) in -en, 
(2) by change of vowel element, and (3) without change. Only ox of the O.E. 
nouns in -an (-en) retains its old ending. Child has wholly deserted from the vowel 
declension ; and brother and cow, partly. These three have double plurals — en being 
added to the plural childer, O.E. cildru, to make children; to O.E. brether, 
brothru, to make brethren; and to cy, the O.E. plural of cu, to make kine. 

In fot, chapter IX, it is seen that e, now ee, is found only in the dative singular 
and in the nominative and accusative plural. The dative was rarely used ; the nomi- 



80 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB 

deer, grouse, gross, hose, sheep, swine, vermin. 

Fourth Irregular Method — Foreign Plurals Retained. 

Here are a few illustrations : — 

analysis, analyses ; beau, beaux or beaus ; datum, data ; focus, 
foci ; genus, genera ; madame, mesdames ; nebula, nebulse ; mon- 
sieur, messieurs ; phenomenon, phenomena. 

PECULIAR PLURALS 

1. Some foreign nouns while keeping their old plurals 
have taken on English plurals. Often, while in this tran- 
sitional state, these diverse forms have different meanings, 

as : — 

cherub, cherubim (mysterious winged beings) and cherubs (beau- 
tiful children); genius, genii (spirits) and geniuses (men of genius); 
index, indices (signs in algebra) and indexes (tables of reference); 
stamen, stamina (bones of bodies, vigor) and stamens (organs of 
flowers). 

2. Some nouns, not foreign, have two plurals with dif- 
ferent meanings, as : — 



native and accusative constantly. Fet being found almost exclusively in the plural, 
and fot in the singular, the change of to e came to signify plurality, and the super- 
fluous plural endings were dropped. 

This change of vowel was caused by an i in the endings of the three cases. The 
transition from o of the stem to i of the ending was harder for the mouth organs to 
make than that from e to i ; and so unconsciously speakers exchanged for e. Like 
changes were made in the other five nouns above. 

This change of a letter caused by one coming after it is variously called Vowel- 
Modification, Umlaut, and Mutation. 



THE NOUN 81 

brother, brothers (by blood) and brethren (of the same society); 
die, dice (cubes for gaming) and dies (stamps for coining); foot, feet 
(parts on the body) and foot (infantry); head, heads (parts of the 
body) and head (cattle) ; horse, horses (animals) and horse (cavalry) ; 
sail, sails (pieces of canvas) and sail (vessels). 

3. Some nouns have one plural with diverse meanings, 
as: — 

color, colors (paints and flags) ; custom, customs (habits and reve- 
nue duties); ground, grounds (lands and dregs); letter, letters (al- 
phabet and literature); manner, manners (ways, behavior); moral, 
morals (teachings and character) ; pain, pains (sufferings and care) ; 
spectacle, spectacles (shows a^id glasses). 

4. Some words always plural in form and in mean- 
ing, as : — 

aborigines, annals, assets, lungs, mumps, nippers, pincers, scissors, 
shears, snuffers, thanks, tongs, tidings, victuals, vitals. 

5. Some words plural in form, but singular in meaning, 
as: — 

acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences 
ending in ics), amends, measles, news. 

6. Some compound nouns vary the first word in the 
plural, as : — 

a^s-de-camp, commanders-in-chief, courts-mdLTti&l, fathers-in-law, 
hangers-on, men-of-war. 

7. Most compounds vary the last word in the plural, as : — 

Englislmen, ieWow-servants, goose-quills, hand/nZs, mantraps, 
piano/or£es, stepsons, toothbrushes. 

H. SCH. GRAM. 6 



82 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

8. Some compounds vary both parts, as : — 

men-children, men-servants, women-singers, women-servants. 

9. Compounds consisting of a title and a proper name 
vary either, as : — 

the Misses 1 Smith or the Miss Smiths; the Drs. Thomson or the 
Dr. Thomsons. 

10. When used with two or more names the title is plural- 
ized, as: — 

Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Maynard, Merrill, & Co., Generals 
Grant and Lee. 

11. Letters, figures, and other characters form the plural 
with the apostrophe and s, as : — 

a's, 2's, ■ — 's, i's, 9's, x 's, +'s, £'s. 

12. Abstract nouns and names of materials generally have 
no plurals; but they may have when they denote repeated 
actions, varieties of qualities, kinds of the same material, or 
things made out of the material, as : — 

loves, tremblings, vices, liberties, coffees, wines, oils, silks, tins, 
irons. 

13. The initial letter of a word is sometimes doubled to 
form the abbreviation of the plural, as : — 

1 If Mrs. is used, the name is varied ; as, the Mrs. C larks. " In colloquial lan- 
guage, it is usual to say, the Miss Smiths, the two Doctor Thomsons, etc., — the 
construction in the case of brothers, etc., being often evaded by saying the Smith 
brothers. The Misses Smith now sounds pedantic, and is liable to cause confusion 
with Mrs. SmitJi." —t. 



THE NOUN 83 

LL. in LL.B., in LL.D., and in LL.M., is for the plural of lex 
(leges, legum), l laws ' ; I. is for line, and 11. for lines ; p. tor page, and 
pp. for pages; M. (or Mr.) for Mister, and JOf. (or Messieurs) for 
the plural ; Jftf. for manuscript, and Jf #& for manuscripts. 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Parts of Speech not on the Same 
Footing — Wherein? Nouns — Derivation, Classification, and Defini- 
tions of. Number. Plural — Regular way, and Irregular ways of 
forming it. Peculiar Plurals. 

Questions. — In what respects are the parts of speech not on the 
same footing ? Roots of nouns denote what ? Derivative affixes, 
what ? Inflectional suffixes, what ? Base, or stem, what ? Illustrate 
verbal, or predicative, roots with sku. Wherein do proper nouns now 
differ from common? With truth and its changes illustrate root, 
derivative prefixes and suffixes, and inflectional suffixes. Classify 
and subclassify nouns, and illustrate the several classes. Show how 
in a minute classification the classes overlap. From what, and with 
what derivative suffixes, do abstract nouns come ? Define the several 
classes of nouns. A synthetic language, what ? An analytic, what ? 
What are modifications of words ? What modifications have nouns ? 
Number, what ? Define the two numbers. What number has English 
lost ? How is the plural regularly formed ? What two languages 
were influential in making the plural in -s common ? Give Jespersen's 
reasons for making Danish the more influential of the two, and 
March's remarks upon them. What is the principle governing in the 
use of -s rather than -es as plural ending ? Give and illustrate the 
three exceptions to this rule. When do we use -es ? Give and illus- 
trate the four irregular ways of forming the plural in English. What 
ones are of O.E. origin ? With O.E. oxa, fot, and hus, p. 93, 
illustrate three. Show how, in fot and the other five nouns of its class 



84 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

in English, a change of internal vowel came to be significant of 
plurality. What is vowel-modification or umlaut or mutation ? Give 
and illustrate the thirteen kinds of peculiar plurals. 

Exercises. — Give the plural of boy, cage, and fox, and the reasons 
for the plural endings. Give the plural of volcano, life, and city, and 
the exceptions which govern these plurals. What tendency is illus- 
trated in the pronunciation of oaths and days ? What irregular ways 
of forming the plural are illustrated in oxen, men, sheep, and data? 
What difference in meaning between the plurals cherubim and 
cherubs, brothers and brethren, sail and sails? Give the more com- 
mon nouns that are always plural in form and in meaning, and those 
that are plural in form but singular in meaning ; compound nouns 
whose first word is pluralized ; whose last part is pluralized ; both of 
whose parts are pluralized. Illustrate the pluralizing of letters and 
figures. Give the abbreviations that double the initial or final letter 
to form the plural. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE NOUN — ( Continued') 
GENDER 

The modification of a noun in English to denote the 
sex of the object is called Gender. The name of a male 
is of the Masculine Gender; that of a female is of the 
Feminine Gender; that of a thing without sex is of the 
Neuter Gender ; and that of a thing that may be of either 
sex is of the Common Gender. 

Sex belongs to the object; gender, to the noun that 
names the object. In English, 1 gender follows sex; know- 

1 In Latin and Greek, and in French, German, etc., gender is grammatical — is 
attributed to nouns without sole or supreme regard to the sex, or the lack of sex, of 
the objects named. 

March and Sayce and Whitney recognize no signs set apart for gender in the 
theoretic parent-speech of the Indo-European ; but it is found established in the earliest 
remains of languages. 

It is agreed that the masculine is the fundamental form, and that the feminine 
first separated from it. Words possessing long vowels or liquids, or broadening and 
prolonging the final vowel of the derivative or the declensional ending were thought 
to represent feminine qualities, and were applied to females. Then other nouns with 
such endings were classed with these as grammatically feminine, no matter which sex 
the objects were of, or whether of either. The neuter separated later, and "was not so 
thorough-going." It is a masculine with the activity left out, having no nominative 
(actor's) case-sign or sign of counted individuals — plural number. 

In O.E., gender was grammatical. "In that vast decay and ruin of grammatical 
forms which attended the elaboration of Mn.E. out of its Saxon and Norman elements, 
the distinctive suffixes of gender disappeared along with the rest." Since then 
gender in English has followed sex. 

85 



86 HIGH school GRAMMAR 

ing the sex of the object, or its lack of sex, you know the 
gender of the noun in English that names it. 

Definitions 

Gender is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which 
denotes sex. 

The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex. 

The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex. 

The Neuter Gender denotes the lack of sex. 

No English nouns now have distinctive neuter forms ; 
but the feminine of a few words is distinguished from 
the masculine : — 

I. By a different ending of the words. 

The usual feminine ending, and the only one by which 
new feminines are formed, is -ess — added (1) to the full 
form of the masculine ; (2) to the masculine with the 
vowel of the ending omitted ; (3) to the masculine with the 
full ending omitted; or (4) to the masculine with irregu- 
lar changes, as : — 

(1) count, countess; host, hostess; lion, lioness; prophet, proph- 
etess; shepherd, shepherdess; (2) actor, actress; benefactor, bene- 
factress ; hunter, 1 huntress ; preceptor, preceptress ; waiter, waitress ; 

(3) negro, negress; governor, governess ; murderer, murderess j and 

(4) duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; marquis, marchion- 
ess ; master, mistress. 

1 -Er, originally masculine, now indicates the agent. 



THE NOUN 

The other feminine endings are -ster/ -en, -trix, -ine, 
-ina, and -a., as : — 

fox, vixen; executor, executrix; hero, heroine; czar, czarina; 
don, donna. 

II. By different words in the compound names, as : — 

billy-goat, nanny-goat ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; grandfather, 
grandmother ; he-bear, .she-bear ; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow ; land- 
lord, landlady ; milkman, milkmaid ; merman, mermaid ; man-servant, 
maid-servant ; step-father, step-mother ; peacock, peahen. 

III. By words radically or wholly different, as : — 

bachelor, maid 2 ; brother, sister; boy, girl 2 ; buck, doe; bull, 
cow; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, mother ; gander, goose 2 ; 
husband, wife 2 ; king, queen 2 ; lord, lady; monk, nun; nephew, 
niece ; ram, ewe ; sir, madam ; son, daughter ; steer, heifer ; stag, 
hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch 2 . 

Gender is chiefly important as involving the correct use 
of the pronouns he, she, and it. 

When a singular noun or pronoun is used for a person 
of either' sex, it is commonly represented by a masculine 
pronoun, as : — 

"Each visitor came in hi* carriage *' ; "Every one has his fau". 



1 This gave way to -ess ; when used now it denotes the agent. /Soa^-str-ess and 
seam-sti-e&8 have double feminine endings. Spinster, with meaning changed, still 
keeps the feminine force of -ster. 

2 Many nouns have changed their meaning and their gender — maid and ^VZonce 
named persons of either .-.ex : goo*e is of the common gender; wUeh was once applied 
to males aUo. Wife and queen once moant uoman simply. 



88 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

The names of animals are often used without regard to 
real sex — the speaker employing he or she according as 
the animal is thought to have masculine or feminine 
characteristics, but using he more frequently than she, 
as: — 

"The grizzly bear is the most savage of his race"; " The cat 
steals upon her prey" ; "The dog is faithful to his master." 

The neuter it is often used for animals undistinguished 
for masculine or feminine qualities, and for very young 
children without regard to real sex, as : — 

" When the deer is alarmed, it makes two or three rapid bounds" ; 
"The little child reached out its hand." 

Inanimate things are often personified by the use of he 
and she, as : — 

"The oak shall send his roots abroad" ; " Truth gets well if she 
is run over by a locomotive." 

The principle determining the gender in personification 
is this : if the thing is notable for strength, size, boldness, 
or majesty, the masculine he is used ; if for grace, beauty, 
timidity, gentleness, or productiveness, the feminine she. 
Only in languages where, as in English, gender is no 
longer grammatical, is this figure, which adds interest to 
things and animation to style, possible. 

Number and gender are modifications affecting the 
meaning of nouns and pronouns — number almost always 
indicated by form; gender, sometimes. But there are 



THE NOUN 89 

modifications of nouns and pronouns that refer to rela- 
tions ; namely, person and case. 

The person of nouns is not indicated by form, that of 
certain pronouns is ; one case of nouns is, all the cases of 
certain pronouns are. 

PERSON 

(1) "7, your friend, will answer that" ; (2) You, my friend, may 
answer that" ; (3) My friend has gone, he went yesterday." 

I and friend in (1) denote the speaker ; yon and friend 
in (2) denote the one spoken to ; friend and he in (3) denote 
the one spoken of. These three relations of nouns and 
pronouns to the discourse constitute the modification called 
Person. 

I and friend are of the First Person ; you and friend 
are of the Second Person ; friend and he are of the Third 
Person — the pronouns changing to express the three per- 
sons, but the noun friend remaining the same in form. 

Definitions 

Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one 1 spoken of. 
The First Person denotes the one! speaking. 
The Second Person denotes the one 1 spoken to. 
The Third Person denotes the one 1 spoken of. 

1 By one we mean a mere thing as well as a creature. 



90 high school grammar 

When the subject of a sentence is of the first or of the 
second person, it is, as we have just seen, a pronoun; a 
noun used as subject is always of the third person. 

We consider the person of a noun or pronoun because 
verbs have inflections which must be made to agree with 
the persons of their subjects, as : — 

44 1 read"; "Thou read-est" ; "Heread-s." 1 



SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Gender — Origin, Grammatical, 
Kinds, Definitions of. Feminine Nouns distinguished from Masculine. 
Feminine Endings. Gender in Personification. Person. 

Questions. — Define gender. How many genders ? Distinction 
between sex and gender ? Grammatical gender, what ? When lost 
in English ? Development of the feminine and neuter ? The three 
ways by which some feminines are distinguished from the masculines ? 
Illustrate. Illustrate the changed stems to which -ess is added. Give 
and illustrate the feminine endings. The two words with double 
feminine endings. Gender chiefly important for what ? When he 
and when she used for names of animals ? and when it f What 
governs the gender of the personifying pronoun ? What is person ? 
The three persons ? Definitions ? What part of speech is the sub- 
ject if of first or second person ? Of what person must the subject 
be if a noun ? The person of a noun or pronoun important, why ? 

Exercises. — Form the feminine of host, actor, negro, duke, 
governor, lad, master, executor, hero, gentleman, milkman, merman, 

1 This -s is the almost invariable ending of the third person singular of the verb 
expressing present action or being. 



THE NOUN 91 

step- father, bachelor, drake, earl, husband, lord, nephew, steer, uncle, 
wizard. Insert the proper pronouns in these blanks : — 

44 Belgium's capital had gathered there beauty and chiv- 
alry"; " The sparrow trills song"; "The elephant is noted for 

strength"; "The child was unconscious of danger"; 

44 Every person has faults " ; "The wild beast from cover 

sprang, the wild bird from grove " ; " The fox is noted for 

cunning"; " Truth is fearless, yet is meek"; " Spring comes 

forth to do work." 



CHAPTER IX 

THE NOUN — {Continued) 

CASE 
"If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free." 

In this sentence the noun lungs represents something as 
performing an act; the noun air represents something as 
receiving an act ; and the noun slave's and the pronoun our 
represent persons as possessing something. 

The different offices of nouns and pronouns in a sentence 
constitute the modification called Case. 1 Lungs and he, 
used as subjects, are in the Nominative Case; air, used as 
object complement, is in the Objective Case ; and slave's and 
our, used to denote possession, are in the Possessive Case. 
The only noun case with case-ending is the possessive. 

1 The Latin casus means variation from the primary form, and strictly can be 
applied only to the non-upright, or oblique cases. 

In our family there were eight cases — the nominative, the accusative, the vocative, 
the genitive, the locative, the dative, the ablative, and the instrumental — coming into 
use, it is thought, in the order here given. The nominative was subject ; the accusative, 
object ; the vocative, the form of address ; the genitive stood for the relations denoted 
by our of; the locative, by in ; the dative, by to or for ; the ablative, by from ; and 
the instrumental, by with or oy. These cases were marked by inflections. 

Many of them employed prepositions to help make their relations more definite. In 
different languages, in the same language, the same relations were often denoted by 
different cases. This and the tendency to simplification aided the prepositions in sup- 
planting some cases and in narrowing the scope of others. 

92 



THE NOUN 



93 



Definitions 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes 
its office in the sentence. 

Declension is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and 
pronouns in the two numbers. 



MODERN ENGLISH NOUNS DECLINED 



SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 

Nom. lord, lord-s, lady, ladi-es, 

Pos. lord-'s, lord-s', lady-'s, ladi-es', 

Obj. lord ; lord-s. lady ; ladi-es. 



SING. PLUR. 

man, men, 

man-'s, men-'s, 

man ; men. 



MASCULINE 

Nom. hlaford, fot, 

Gen. hlaford-es, fot-es, 

Bat. hlaford-e, fet, 

Ace. hlaford : fot : 



OLD ENGLISH NOUNS DECLINED 

The Vowel 1 Declension 

Singular 

FEMININE NEUTER 

gif-u, bryd, scip, litis, 

gif-e, bryd-e, scip-es, hus-es, 

gif-e, bryd-e, scip-e, hfis-e, 

gif-e ; bryd ; scip ; litis j 



Plural 

Nom. hlaford-as, fet, gif-a(-e), bryd-a(-e), scip-u, has, 

Gen. hlaford-a, fot-a, gif-ena(-a), bryd-a, scip-a, htis-a, 

Bat. hlaford-um, fot-um, gif-um, bryd-um, scip-um, htis-um, 

Ace. hlaford-as. fet. gif-a(-e). bryd-a (-e). scip-u. hus. 



1 Called voicel declension because of the vowel originally added to the radical syllable 
to form the stem ; called consonant declension from the n-ending of the primitive stem. 

With an occasional exception, the nouns of the vowel declension are inflected as are 
the six above : hlaford, ' lord ' ; fot, ' foot ' ; gifu, ' gift ' ; bryd, ' bride ' ; scip, 



#4 HIGH SCHOOL GEAMMAB 

The Consonant Declension 



Singular 


Plural 


Nom. 


ox-a, 1 


ox-an, 


Gen. 


ox-an, 


ox-ena, 


Bat. 


ox-an, 


ox-um, 


Ace. 


ox-an ; 


ox-an. 



Remarks. — 1. The O.E. declensions above illustrate our ways of 
forming the plural — hlaford-as (-es, -s), the regular way; ox-an 
(-en), the first irregular way ; fet (e our ee), the second ; and hus, the 
third. 

2. They illustrate our possessive ending. The genitive -es of the 
masculine and neuter, vowel declension, is our (-'s) — the apostrophe 
to be accounted for later. 

3. They show that O.E. is highly inflected — almost every case 
having an ending, though not always one exclusively its own, and 
almost every case in the plural having a plural sign. Of these O.E. 
inflections, only the plural -as and the genitive -es, both changed, 
remain. 

4. The endings disappeared in this way and order : (1) -urn be- 
came -on ; (2) even before 1060, -a, -o, and -u weakened to obscure -e ; 
(3) the final -n sloughed off ; and then (4) the -e final, except where, 
as in house, horse, etc., the dative -e of hus, hors, etc., is retained 
throughout. During the M.E. period, these changes were completed, 
leaving us only the -as and -es spoken of in 3. 

5. This decay of inflections is explicable. The endings were un- 
accented, and hence indistinctly pronounced. This merged the sound, 
and then the form, of final -a, -o, and -u, into -e. Final unaccented 
syllables often drop off, especially when pronounced by those to 

'ship'; and hus, 'house.' The nouns of the consonant declension are inflected like 
oxa, ' ox,' except that feminines have -e instead of -a in the nominative singular; and 
the neuters have -e instead of -a and -an in the nominative and accusative singular. 
1 See p. 33 for the pronunciation of these O.E. words. 



THE NOUN 95 

whom the language is not native. This happened to the Latin in 
becoming French; it happened to O.E. in becoming Mn.E. This 
dropping was aided by the fact that in neither number were the 
endings any longer significant of case — different cases having the 
same ending, and some cases being without distinct functions. 

6. But this decay was stubbornly resisted by the two -s-endings, 
because they denote " those syntactical relations which are most dis- 
tinctive and indispensable in language. 7 ' French and Danish influ- 
ence helped to generalize these as our plural, and our possessive, sign — 
both languages aiding to make universal in Mn.E. what was only 
partial in O.E. 

DEFINITIONS 

The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is 
thought. 

The Attribute Complement of a sentence completes the pred- 
icate and belongs to the subject. 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes 
its office in the sentence. 

The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office 
as subject or as attribute complement. 

While case denotes the office of a substantive in the sen- 
tence, not every office of it has a separate case. The nomi- 
native and the objective, especially, have each many offices. 

THE NOMINATIVE i CASE 
1. The main office of the nominative case is as subject. 
Lungs and he, in the opening sentence of the chapter, 
illustrate this office. 

1 Nominative means naming, and every case of a noun names something. But the 
chief office of the nominative is to name that of which something- is asserted. 



96 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

2. A substantive used independently — (1) by address, 
(2) by exclamation, (3) by pleonasm, (4) in an absolute phrase 

— is said to be in the nominative case, as : — 

(1) " Cromwell, 1 1 charge thee, fling away ambition " ; (2) "Traitor ! 
who calls me this ? " (3) u The smith, a mighty man is he " ; (4) " His 
argument 2 finished, Mr. Webster stood for some minutes in silence 
before the court." 

3. A substantive used as explanatory modifier 3 — explain- 
ing by adding another name of the thing — is in the nom- 
inative if the word it explains is, as : — 

" Washington, the father of his country, he, our first President, left 
us his imperishable Farewell Address." 

4. A substantive used as attribute complement 4 of a finite 
verb — a verb with mode, tense, number, and person — is in 
the nominative case, as : — 

u All attainable health is a duty ; all avoidable disease seems a sin.'' 1 

5. A substantive used as attribute complement of a parti- 
ciple or of an infinitive is nominative if the substantive to 
which it relates is, as : — 

1 There being- in English no vocative case, or case of address, its office is taken by 
the nominative. 

2 This absolute construction is expressed by different cases in different languages 

— by the genitive in Greek, the ablative in Latin, the dative in O.E. For the absolute 
phrase as modifier, see chapter VI. 

s if preferred, the explanatory modifier may be called an appositive, or a noun in 
apposition. 

4 If preferred, subjective complement may be used instead of attribute com- 
plement. 



THE NOUN 97 

" Chosen leader (or as leader) he at once took command "; " Called 
to be leader, he did not shrink from leading." 

6. When the assumed subject of a participle is a possessive, 
the attribute complement is nominative, as : — 

"Its being he, the long-expected Bliicher, gave Wellington great 
joy." 

7. When the participle or infinitive is used without an 
assumed subject, its attribute complement is nominative, as : — 

" Being only a voter is not being a citizen" ; " To be he is to be a 
patriot." 

THE POSSESSIVE CASE 

Our possessive case of nouns, the only one with case- 
ending, succeeded to the O.E. genitive, but represents it 
inadequately. 

The O.E. genitive denotes measure, material, separation, 
time, cause, means, manner, and partition, as well as pos- 
session — it is even used with prepositions. The possess- 
ive case indicates possession principally. While theoretic- 
ally every noun has a possessive, in use the case is almost 
restricted 1 to nouns denoting persons, animals that may 
be said to possess, and things personified. 

1 The exception consists chiefly of nouns indicating measure of some kind, princi- 
pally of time; as, "day's journey" ; "a month's pay"; "an hour's drive" ; "five 
minutes' 1 walk" ; "a week's work" ; "ten cents' worth" ; and "a hair's breadth." 

Even with nouns denoting- persons the idea of possession may be taken too literally. 
In "John's being absent," "Henry's neighbor," "the man'smaster," it is connec- 
tion of some kind, rather than possession, that is implied. See Professor Hadley's 
English Possessive Case in Essays Philological and Critical. 

H. SCH. GRAM. 7 



98 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

When the case inflection -es ceased to be a distinct syl- 
lable, the e began to drop out, and the apostrophe 1 took its 
place. Subsequently the apostrophe was placed after the -s 
of the possessive plural to distinguish this from the other 
cases of the plural. 

Definition. — The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun 
denotes its office as possessive modifier. 

Rule. — The Possessive Case of nouns is formed in the singu- 
lar, by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and s ('s) 2 ; in 
the plural, by adding the apostrophe (') only. 3 

The substantive in the possessive, like the substantive 
explanatory, modifies a noun, and so takes upon itself the 



1 Whether to denote the omission of e, or to distinguish the possessive singular from 
the cases of the plural is not certain — probably the latter. 

By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the use of the apostrophe was fully 
established, Professor Lounsbury thinks. See his English Language, The Noun. 

2 Some have thought this -s a remnant of his. Phrases like " Mars his sword," " the 
prince his players," common in Old and in Middle English, give countenance to this 
error recently revived. But Professor Hadley, in the article English Possessive Case, 
in his Essays Philological and Critical, has demonstrated that the O.E. termination 
-es exists in our possessive ending to-day. 

Professor Jespersen's remarks are instructive. He holds that his was a species of 
anacoluthon resulting from the speaker's beginning with some prominent word in 
thought, whose construction he had not determined, so that a correcting pronoun in the 
possessive was needed after it, especially if a clause or a long phrase followed the word, 
as in " It shall come to pass that the man ichom I shall choose, his rod shall bend "; 
" But he, the chieftain of them all, his sword hangs rusting on the wall." 

Then, when the pronoun immediately follows the antecedent; as, "This misshapen 
knave, his master, was a witch." The transition from this use of his to that in " Mars 
his sword " would be natural — as also the supposed identification of ->S with his. In 
other languages than English this form of expression is current. 

3 The apostrophe and s ('s) are used after the few plurals not ending in -s — men's, 
children's, etc. 



THE NOUN 99 

office of an adjective. But both name or denote things, and 
both are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs. They 
represent the two kinds of noun modifiers — (1) the possess- 
ive, and (2) the explanatory, or appositive. 

To avoid hissing sounds, the -s of the possessive singular 
: may be omitted, as : — 

" Conscience' sake " ; " Goodness' sake " ; " Achilles' sword. " 

But the -s is retained, and pronounced as es, when the ear 
needs its help to identify the words as possessives, as : — 

" Mrs. Hemans's poetry " ; " James's hat " ; " Prince's estate." 

1. When (1) several possessives modify the same word 
and imply joint possession, the sign is added to the last 

\ noun only. But, (2) if they modify different nouns, ex- 
pressed or implied, or, while implying joint possession, they 

I represent the possessors, (3) as separate, or (4) as mutually 
opposed — in all four cases the sign is added to each, as : — 

(1) " Mason and Dixon's line"; (2) u To cut your, John's, and 
each other's throat" ; (3) " He was his father's, mother's, and sister's 
favorite " ; (4) " It was the servant's, as well as the master's, right. 

2. When the word modified by the possessive is ex- 
! pressed, the noun explanatory of the possessive does not 

take the possessive sign, as : — 

"I am not of Percy's 1 mind, the Hotspur 1 of the North, he that 

1 In O.E., both these nouns would be in the genitive, as in "On Uerod-es dagum, 
cyning-es" — 'In Herod's, the king's days.' 



100 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

kills me some six or seven dozen of Scots " ; " Thou fearest to meet 
Baldens 1 voice, thy brother, whom through folly thou didst slay." 

3. When the modified word is understood, then (1) the 
explanatory noun alone has the possessive sign, or (2) both 
the explanatory noun and the noun explained have it ; but 
(3) only the noun explained has it if the explanatory noun 
is modified by a phrase, as : — 

(1) " I left the book at Smith, the bookseller's " ; (2) " I left it at 
Smith's, the bookseller's " ; (3) " I left it at Smith's, the bookseller in 
Henry Street." 

4. When a proper noun in the possessive is preceded by 
a title, only the noun takes the sign — and this, whether 
the noun modified by the possessive is expressed or under- 
stood, as : — 

"Duke John's cousin"; u My friend Moore's sake"; "Left at 
Captain Moore's." 

5. Compound nouns, and group-compounds treated as 
such, add the sign to the last word only, as : — 

"Henry the Eighth's reign"; "The Queen of Spain's throne" ; 
"The nian-of-war's sails" ; "The commander-in-c/u'e/'s order." 2 

1 Notice that this sentence from Matthew Arnold and the one below from Shake- 
speare show that a noun in the possessive may be the antecedent of a relative pro- 
noun — " As if it were Cain's jawbone that did the first murder." For the possessive 
of pronouns so used, see p. 113, foot-note 2. 

2 Such word-groups as Queen of Spain and man-of-war were once separable. Till 
the fifteenth century, Queen of Spain's throne would have been (the apostrophe 
apart) Queen's throne of Spain. We do not treat such groups quite as units now, we 
pluralize the first noun of the group instead of the last — Queens of Spain, m e?t-of-war. 

I. The plural sign varies in form, effect, and position. 1. Ordinarily it is (1) -s, as 



THE NOUN 101 

The possessive may be ambiguous — (1) subjective, or 
active, (2) objective, or passive. In 

(1) "The pugilist* s blow was heavy"; (2) "My present cost 
less than yours" 

(1) may be said of the blow the pugilist gave or got, 
and (2), of the gifts we sent or received. 

The preposition of with the objective may be used 
instead of the possessive. We may say 

"Paul's letters" or "The letters of Paul" 1 ; "Somebody else's 
name" or "The name of somebody else"; "A doctor of divinity's 

in boys ; (2) sometimes it is -es, as in box-es ; (3) a vowel change, as in feet; (4) -en, 
as in ox-en ; (5) wanting, as in sheep ; (6) almost anything, as in cherub-im, termi?i-i, 
formul-dd, and dat-a.. 2. It often changes the stem of the noun, as in cit-i-es and 
loa-v-es. 3. It is not stationary — is added (1) to the first word of a compound, as in 
fathers-in-law ; (2) to the second, as in maid-servants ; (3) belongs to both, as 
in men-singer— s. 

II. But the possessive sign is always the same in form, effect, and place. 1. In 
form, as in (1) boy-'s, (2) box-'s, (3) foot-'s, (4) ox-'s, (5) sheep-s, (6) seraph-s. 
2. It. causes no change in the stem, as in city-'s, loaf-'s. If dropped in a few words, 
as in conscience'' sake, the apostrophe remains to identify the case. We even extend 
the apostrophe to the possessive plural in s\ as in boys'; and the -'s to plurals 
not in -s, as in men's. 3. The possessive sign is fixed in position. It stands 
immediately before the noun which the possessive modifies— even when, as in some- 
body else-s and men-of-war-' s, it is not annexed to that part which really names 
the possessor. 

A sufficient reason for the inconstant position of the plural sign and the fixed form 
and position of the possessive is this : pluralizing a noun does not disturb its syntactical 
relations ; converting it into a possessive does ; and we must know not only the 
possessive modifier but the word it modifies. Of this we are certain only when the 
two words come together. 

Many of the endings, offices, and positions of the O.E. genitive are now lost. Its 
heir, the modern possessive, has one ending, one office, and one position. 

1 But we would not say, " This is the house of John." If we use an appositive, 
however, we may say, "This is the house of my nephew John." 



102 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

wife" or "The wife of a doctor of divinity"; "Our all coming 
together" or "The coming together of us all." 

But of and the objective may, like the possessive, be 
ambiguous. In 

(1) "The fear of the enemy''' ; (2) "The care of his father"; 
(3) "The love of God," 

(1) may mean the fear the enemy felt or the fear they 
caused ; (2) his care for his father or his father's care 
for him ; and (3) our love for God or God's love for us. 
The possessive has other equivalents than of with the 
objective. We may say 

"Some one else's mistake" or " A mistake made by some one 
else" ; "My wife's father's house" or "The house belonging to 
my wife's father" ; Your love and his" or "The love you and he 
cherish"; "An hour's chat" or "A chat for an hour" ; "The 
king's enemies" or "The enemies the king has." 

Often, ambiguity is avoided by placing the assumed 
subject of the nounal verb in the possessive, as : — 

"The writer's 1 being a scholar is not doubted"; "No one ever 
heard of the mail's having been beaten." 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE 
" James seized." 

Here the predicate does not completely assert the act 
performed. If we add a noun, and say 

/ x " The writer being a scholar is not doubted " is ambiguous ; it may mean that be- 
cause he is a scholar he is not doubted, or simply that his scholarship is not doubted. 



THE NOUN 103 

" James seized a rope," 

we complete the predicate by naming that which receives 
the act. Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Comple- 
ment. As rope completes the expression of the act by 
naming the thing acted upon, — the object, — we call it the 
Object Complement. 

Definition. — The Object Complement of a sentence com- 
pletes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. 

All nouns and pronouns so used are in the Objective 
Case. 

Connected objects completing the same verb form a 
Compound Object Complement, as: — 

" James saw hawks and mice and nimble, frolicsome squirrels." 

I Prepositions in English are used with the objective case. 
1 This case discharges some of the functions of the O.E. 
1 genitive and all of the O.E. dative and accusative. 

Definition. — The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun 
1 denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word 
in a prepositional phrase. 

Many nouns in the objective case may follow (1) a 
; single preposition; and the same noun or nouns may fol- 
, low (2) two prepositions or (3) a preposition and a transi- 
tive verb, as : — 
- 
(1) " Sanitary reform is a sacred crusade against dirt, degradation, 

disease, and death'" ; (2) "Bryant's residence in the city had enlarged 
| his knowledge of, and deepened his interest in, the ways and 



104 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

doings of men"; (3) "That which Wordsworth loved and aimed 
at and sought to represent will always be to some the object of 
genuine dislike." 

Some verbs take not only a direct object but an indirect, 
or dative, object — both in the Objective Case, as : — 

" She gave 1 him a book " ; " The plumbers made l me a visit." 

In Latin and in O.E., the dative of the personal pronoun 
was sometimes almost redundant, and was called the Ethical 
Dative. Whenever this expletive use of the pronoun is 
found in M.E. and later, it is in the Objective Case, as : — 

"He that kills me some six or seven dozen of Scots"; " One 
Coionna cuts me the throat of OrsinPs baker." 

Some nouns denoting the time at or during which, denot- 
ing value, direction, distance, weight, quantity — measure of 
almost any kind — are used adverbially in the Objective Case 
without a preposition, as : — 

" One day, I stood some time scarcely twenty feet from the mother 
crow" ; " They went a part of the way home with him" ; " Wheat 
weighs 2 sixty pounds a bushel "; "It is worth five dollars a yard." 

1 Some of the other verbs followed by indirect objects are buy, send, promise, ask, 
pay, bring, offer, permit, sell, tell, teach, show, and yield. With some of them, as 
ask, in " I asked him a question," the indirect object sustains to the verb more of an 
ablative relation than a dative — ask from rather than ask at. 

If we change the order of the two objects, a preposition must be supplied — "She 
gave him money," " She gave money to him " ; but, when the indirect precedes the 
direct, no preposition is expressed or understood. 

2 As Wrightson observes, some of these verbs have different meanings, and are 
followed by different objects — some adverbial and some direct; as, " A barrel of 
flour weighs 196 pounds " and " The grocer zoeighed the flour " / " He measures five 
feet, nine inches" and " He measures the circumference of the tree" ; "The tub 
holds five gallons " and " He holds the knife between his thumb and finger." 



THE NOUN 105 

Certain verbs, called factitives — facere, to 'make' — be- 
cause they express the idea of making, may be followed by 
a second object denoting that into which the verb converts 
the first. This factitive 1 verb may represent the making, as 
(1) actual; (2) declared; or (3) only thought of. The second 
object, like the first, is in the Objective Case, and is called 
the Objective Complement. Some of the verbs so used are : — 

(1) create, make, appoint, cause; (2) proclaim, prove, declare, name, 
call ; (3) choose, esteem, regard, consider, deem, think, as: — 

11 President Garfield made Lowell Minister to England " ; We call 
Benedict Arnold a traitor"; "We regard, or consider, public office 
a public trust, or as a public trust." 

Definition. — The Objective Complement completes the 
predicate and belongs to the object complement. 

A noun or pronoun explanatory of a noun in the objective 
case is itself in the objective, as : — 
u They hanged Andre, him that was concerned in the Arnold treason." 

A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of an 
infinitive is in the objective if the word of which it is an 
attribute is, as : — 

"They proved the thief to be him that stands there." 

If the assumed subject of an infinitive is omitted — when 
it and the subject of the principal verb would denote the 
same person — the attribute complement of the infinitive is 
in the Objective Case, as : — 

"I wish (me or myself) to be him" 

1 For a fuller account of the factitive object and of the indirect, see chapter VI. 



106 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Case — Declension — Modern 
English and Old English. Remarks thereon. The Nominative Case 
— Uses. The Possessive Case. Its Sign — Position of. Objective 
Case — Offices. 

Questions. — Case, what ? The cases, what ? Strictly applicable 
only to what ? The eight cases of our family of languages ? What 
part of speech gradually supplanted some cases and narrowed 
others? Declension? Decline lord, lady, man. The two O.E. 
declensions ? The O.E. noun endings disappeared how ? What ones 
does Mn.E. retain? What footing did these have in O.E. ? What 
languages helped to generalize these in Mn.E.? Definition of subject, 
attribute complement, case, and nominative case. The seven uses of 
the nominative ? The main use, what ? The four uses of independ- 
ent substantives ? How is the absolute construction expressed in 
other languages ? By what other names may explanatory modifier 
and attribute complement be called? The O.E. genitive denotes 
what ? The possessive case indicates what ? Almost restricted to 
what nouns ? Exception ? The two accounts of the introduction of 
the apostrophe ? When fully established ? Extended to the possess- 
ive plural, why ? Definition of possessive case ? Rule for ? Why 
the possessive and the explanatory substantive not adjectives ? When 
the possessive ending -s omitted ? What error respecting this -s ? 
Jespersen's remarks upon it. With what possessive plurals is -'s used ? 
Give the special cases requiring or forbidding the use of the possessive 
sign. Show that in six ways the plural sign is not the same ; in what 
ways it changes the stem of the noun ; wherein it is not stationary. 
Show that the possessive sign is always the same ; does not change 
the stem of the noun ; is fixed in position. Account for the inconstant 
position of the plural sign and the fixed position of the possessive sign. 
Show that the possessive may be ambiguous. What may take its 
place? Show how the substitute may be ambiguous. What other 



THE NOUN 107 

substitutes may the possessive have ? Show how the possessive sign 
may often prevent ambiguity. What is a complement ? An object 
complement ? A compound object complement ? The objective case ? 
The functions of what O.E. cases does the objective case discharge ? 
A noun in the objective may follow what ? An indirect, or dative, 
object, what ? What verbs used with such objects ? The ethical 
dative, what ? Nouns denoting what are adverbial ? The case of such 
nouns, what ? Factitive verbs, what ? Objective complement, what ? 
After what classes of verbs used ? When the explanatory noun in 
the objective case ? When the attribute complement ? 

Exercises. — Study the table, p. 33, of O.E. sounds and pronounce 
the O.E. nouns of the paradigms, p. 93. Take hldford, scip, and 
oxa, and illustrate the disappearance of most O.E. noun endings, and 
the retention of those we keep. Explain the possessive sign in"a 
month's pay," " a hair's breadth." Give the reasons for the possess- 
ive sign, and for the lack of it, in the italicized words of these expres- 
sions : "Mason and Dixon's line "; " His /over's, mother's, and sister's 
favorite"; "I am not of Percy's mind, the Hotspur of the North"; 
"I left my watch at Smith's, the jeweler's" ; " I left it at Smith's, 
the jeweler on Henry Street ; " My friend Moore's sake " ; u At Captain 
Moore's " ; " Henry the Eighth's reign." Show the ambiguity in "My 
present cost less than yours " ; " The fear of the enemy "; " The love 
of God" ; "The writer being a scholar is not doubted." Illustrate, 
with your own sentences, the object complement, the dative object, 
the ethical dative, the objective complement, and nouns used adver- 
bially in the objective case. 



CHAPTER X 

THE PRONOUN 

Pronouns are words that do substantially what nouns do 
but yet differ radically from them. Nouns are derived 
from roots that express actions and qualities; pronouns, 
from roots that denote relations. The roots of nouns seize 
upon the features of things and name the things from 
them ; the roots of pronouns seize upon the relations of 
things and designate the things by them. 

According as the speaker changes his relation to things, 
or conceives their relation to each other to change, he may 
successively apply to them many of the pronouns. 

Every person may in succession be designated by I, or 
you, or one; every male, by he; every female, by she. To 
the same things, taken separately, we may, as their local 
relations shift, apply this, that, the former, the latter ; and 
of them, taken in mass, we may say these, those, some, others, 
they, etc. 

A pronoun may be so vague as to indicate any one or 

number of a class, or a possible being or action, and at the 

same time so definite as to have another pronoun refer to it 

for its meaning and stand for it, as : — 

" They that fly can fight again ; 
Which he can never do that's slain." 
108 



THE PRONOUN 109 

Though not naming, as nouns do, a pronoun may be used 
instead of a noun to designate anything; it is, therefore, 
fitly called a pronoun. 

Definition. — A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

Remarks. — While pronouns are substitutes for nouns, enabling us 
(1) to speak of things whose names we do not know, or (2) knowing, 
we do not wish to tell ; (3) to avoid repetitions ; and (4) to speak with 
brevity ; yet to say of them that they are substitutes for nouns is to 
say little. 1 

1. A difference between nouns and pronouns is implanted in their 
very roots. While in some sense nouns describe, pronouns merely 
point out. Gestures could take the place of many pronouns. 

2. While some nouns, as man, thing, substance, are of general 
application, pronouns are still more so. Any person, even an animal 
or a mere thing personified, may use I for himself, you for the one or 
ones addressed, and he, she, it, and they, for the person or persons, the 
thing or things, spoken of; and all creatures and things, except the 
speaker and the one spoken to, are in this last class. 

3. Pronouns tell little. Some betray the speaker's complete igno- 
rance. In u Who went?" " Which of them did you see?" the 
questioner is inquiring for whom who stands, and what the word 



1 Some minor differences between nouns and pronouns are these : 1. Our only 
words that retain grammatical gender are the pronouns he, she, and it. 

2. Our only words that have distinctive nominative or objective forms are pro- 
nouns—nominative I, we thou, ye, she, he, they, and who ; objective me, us, thee, 
him, her (possessive also), them, and whom. 

3. Some words whose plurals are wholly unlike the corresponding cases of the 
singular are pronouns — we and I, ye or you and thou, they and he, she, it. 

4. Our only words whose possessives singular are irregular (1) in having no apos- 
trophe before the -s, or (2) in having- neither apostrophe nor -s, are pronouns — his, 
hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs ; my, mine, our, your, thy, thine, their, her. 

5. Our only double possessives are pronouns — hers, ours, theirs, yours. 



110 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

which denotes. To what does it refer in "It snows" ; u How is it 
with me when every noise appals me?" 

4. It is easy to find a name for a thing with qualities ; not easy to 
coin a word for a thing distinguished from other things by shifting 
relations. Consequently pronouns, when formed, abide. Many of 
ours survive in the several languages of our family — a common in- 
heritance from the primitive Indo-European. 

5. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, as : — 
(1) " To live, that was all he asked" ; (2) "It is doubtful whether 
Mars is inhabited" ; (3) "He is wanting in taste, which means that 
he is uncultivated" ; (4) " Ought he to enlist ? I can't answer that." 

That in (1) stands for a phrase, and in (4) for a sentence. It and 
which in (2) and (3) stand for clauses. 

6. Retaining its office as connective, a pronoun, as which, may, as 
an adjective, accompany its noun; as, "I craved his pardon, which 
pardon he granted me." 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 

I, thou, you, he, she, and it — words that by their form 
denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of 
— are called Personal Pronouns. Adding self to certain cases 
of these — my, thy, him, her, and it — and selves to other 
forms, as our, your, and them, we have what are called Com- 
pound Personal Pronouns. 

Who, which, and what, used in asking questions, are called 
Interrogative Pronouns. 

Who, which, ivhat, and that, introducing clauses, relating 
to words in other clauses, and binding clauses together, are 
called Relative Pronouns. Adding ever and soever to ivho, 
which, and what, we have the Compound Relative Pronouns. 



THE PRONOUN 111 

Words that denote things by pointing them out, or by 

telling something of their number, order, or quantity, are 

called Adjective Pronouns. The more common of these are 

all, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, 
little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, some, 
such, that, these, this, 1 those, whole. 

The word, phrase, or clause in place of which a pronoun 
is used is called an Antecedent. 

Definitions 

A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes 
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

An Interrogative Pronoun 2 is one with which a question is 
asked. 

A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding 
word or words and connects clauses. 

An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of an 
adjective and a noun. 

1 This, that, these, and those are also called Demonstrative Pronouns. 

All, any, both, each, either, many, one, other, etc., are also called Indefinite 
Pronouns because they do not particularize as do the demonstratives. 

Each other and one another are called Reciprocal Pronouns. 

Each, either, and neither are also called Distributives. 

But that brave, good, etc., in the phrases, the brave, the good, etc., describe, we 
should call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives 
modifying nouns understood. 

2 Interrogatives introducing indirect questions are noteasily distinguished from rela- 
tives whose antecedents are suppressed. In " I know who spoke and what he said," 
who spoke and what he said are indirect questions and who and what are inter - 
rogatives. In "I saw what took place and what he did," what and what are 
relatives. 



112 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



First Person. 

SING. PLU. 

Nom. I, we, 1 

_ ( my or our or 

Pos \ ■ « 

^ mine, 3 ours, 4 

Obj. me ; us. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 

Personal Pronouns 

Sec. Person. 



Sec. Person — old form 



SING. 


PLU. 


SING. 


PLU. 


you, 2 


you, 


thou, 


ye or you, 


your or 


your or 


thy or 


your or 


yours, 


yours, 


thine, 


yours, 


you; 


you. 


thee ; 


you. 



1 In strictness, we can hardly be the plural of I, for /does not admit of plurality. 
We = 1+ you, 1+ he, etc. 

2 A remarkable difference between the classical and the modern languages is seen in 
the pronoun of address — the modern using the plural where the ancient and the O.E. 
used the singular. In English, the plural began to supplant the singular during the 
second half of the thirteenth century, and by the middle of the sixteenth it was the 
standard for polite conversation, thou being reserved for relatives, intimates, and 
inferiors. Applied to strangers, thou was a term of insult. Elizabethan literature 
is full of thou in these various uses. Down to the close of the eighteenth century, 
thou was still used in addressing relatives and intimates, but is now restricted to 
prayer and to poetry — except in the language of the Quakers. 

3 Mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, and theirs are used when the name of the 
thing possessed is omitted; as, "This book is mine or yours'''' ; "Hers or theirs 
or ours is lost." Mine and thine were once used before a vowel sound; as, 
" Thine enemy," "Mine honor." 

"A friend of mine or of his,'''' etc. presents a noteworthy idiom. Some suggest 
that of here is partitive, and that the expression is equal to " A friend of my 
friends or of his friends," etc. But such idiomatic phrases as, "This heart of 
mine,'''' "That wife of yours,'''' cannot thus be accounted for. 

Others suggest that 2 :>ossess ^ na is understood after these possessives. Still 
others, that of marks identity, as in "City of New York." Professor Hadley 
remarks, "We may regard the possessives, when thus used, as depending on a 
general indeterminate conception of that which is possessed . . . the collective 
totality " of the things possessed. 

This idiom enables us to make an important distinction — that between "A 
picture of his" and "A picture of him." Nouns are used in the same way — 
"That house of my brother's," "A poem of Pope's." 

4 The -s in ours, yours, hers, and theirs, is the -s of his and its extended by 
analogy to our, your, her, and their, already possessive — so that ours, yours, hers, 
and theirs are double possessives. 



THE PRONOUN 



113 



Third Person Mas. 


Tfcird Pe? 


'son Fern. 


Third Person Nent. 


SING. PLU. 


SING. 


PLU. 


SING. PLU. 


Norn, he, they, 


she, 


they, 


it, 1 they, 


. f their or 
Pos. his, 2 i _ . 

(^theirs, 


her or* 
hers, 


their or 
theirs, 


. „ f their or 
^ theirs, 


Obj. him ; them. 


her ; 


them.* 


it ; them. 



1 Besides being a substitute for nouns, it has vague uses — pointing forward 
or backward to infinitives and other phrases and even to clauses; as, "li is 
sweet to live" ; " To live — it is all I ask"; "It is delightful, this living thus" ; 
" This life at home — it is heaven" ; "It is known that he stole" ; " T/tatf ?'s 2r^0 
and you know it." 

2 Both in prose and in poetry pronouns in the possessive may have pronouns 
relating to them ; as, " Their sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten after another 
God"; "I was a silent spectator while his body was laid here . . . who more 
deeply than any other had penetrated the thinking of mankind"; "Her worthiness 
that gave the ring." 

The noun in the possessive is sometimes so used, as in "From the trees spun 
down the canker-worms . . . upon each woman'' s bonnet, shawl, and gown, who 
shook them off." See p. 100, foot-note 1. 

There is no reason why, if the meaning be kept clear, the antecedents of rela- 
tive pronouns may not be in the possessive case as well as in any other. Usage 
certainly allows it. 

3 Its is our only personal pronoun form not found in O.E. His was the genitive 
of the masculine he and of the neuter hit, our it. But it came to be thought im- 
proper to use his to denote inanimate things as well as animate. In the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries, we see a growing sense of this impropriety — of it, there- 
of her, it, it own, and the are used in place of his as the possessive of it. 

Long after its introduction — in 1598, Lounsbury says — many looked askance at 
its because of the supposed grammatical blunder it contains — the -t in its, like 
the -t in what and thai and the -d in Latin illud, quod, and id, being a nomina- 
tive neuter ending, and the -s a possessive ending. 

In converting into good English what was at first rejected as a grammatical 
monstrosity the power of usage is here strikingly seen. 

4 The three pronouns he, she, and it, distinct in the singular, are alike in the 
plural. A number of persons may be of different sexes ; we may wish to speak of 
persons and of mere things together. A plural pronoun form, having a common 
gender, like they, their, and them, is convenient for this purpose. 

H. SCH. GRAM. 8 



114 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nora. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj. 

SING. PLU. SING. PI^U. SING. PLU. 

n ,. , . , himself : 1 

myself l or) . thyself or) . , ,„ I , 

, „ a )■ ourselves. , m [ yourselves, herself ; } themselves, 

ourself ; 2 j yourself ; j 



itself ; 

The compound personal pronouns have no possessives. 
They are not regularly used as subjects — only (1) for 
emphasis and (2) as reflexives, 3 as : — 

(1) U I myself saw it"; (2) "He found himself deserted by his 
friends." 

Ourself and we are used by rulers, editors, and others 
to hide their individuality, and give authority to what 
they say. This use of the plural for the singular is 
analogous to its use in address. 

1 Self and selves are added to the possessive of the first and second personal 
pronouns, and to the objective of the third. 

2 While we use the plural you and your in addressing a single person, we 
employ the emphatic and reflexive singular yourself, not yourselves, in such ad- 
dress. So, too, though our is plural, editors say ourself, not ourselves. 

3 The O.E. had no reflexives; the ordinary personal pronouns were used instead. 
When no obscurity would be caused we may do the same ; as, " My uncle stopped a 
minute to look about him"; "They counted not their lives dear unto them "/ "The 
young prince took upon Mm the obligations." 

In O.E., self strengthened the pronoun in any case, but always stood separate from 
it. When strengthening the pronoun used as subject, the dative of the pronoun was 
repeated before self ; as, " He (Mm) seZ/did it." 

Professor Sweet notices that him in " He begged me to defend him" for instance, 
would in Latin be the reflexive se. But we could not in English use the corresponding 
reflexive himself, because the logical subject of to defend is me. We should have to 
use the misleading myself, if we used any reflexive. He therefore calls the Latin reflex- 
ives grammatical; and the English logical. 



THE PRONOUN 115 

SUBJECTS OE THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Pronouns — Differences from 
Nouns. Classes of. Declension of Personal Pronouns — Simple and 
Compound. 

Questions. — The radical difference between nouns and pronouns ? 
Who in succession may be denoted by If By you ? By he and she f 
Illustrate the indefiniteness and the deiiniteness at once of pronouns. 
Definition ? What four things do pronouns enable us to do ? What 
are the six greater differences between nouns and pronouns? The 
five minor differences ? Give and define the several classes of pro- 
nouns. How are the compound personal and relative pronouns 
formed ? Give the personal pronouns ; the interrogative ; the rela- 
tive ; and the more common of the adjective pronouns. Why are 
not brave and good, etc., in the phrases the brave, the good, etc., 
adjective pronouns ? What are they ? Illustrate the difficulty of dis- 
tinguishing some interrogatives from relatives. Why is we, strictly 
speaking, not the plural of I? How came the plural pronoun to 
displace the singular in address ? The difference between modern 
and classical languages in the pronoun of address ? Ye in Chaucer 
and in the 1611 version of the Bible ? You now ? Mine, ours, 
etc., how used ? Of mine, of his, etc., explain. Use of the idiom ? 
Eunctions of it ? History of its ? Force of usage seen in what ? 
What three pronouns, diverse in the singular, are alike in the plural ? 
What is gained by this likeness ? To what cases of the simple pro- 
nouns is the self or selves added to form the compound ? Uses of 
these compounds ? To what use should they not be put ? What 
case do they lack ? While the plural you and your is used in address- 
ing a single person, what compound do we use ? In the editorial use 
of the compound? When, in O.E., self strengthened the pronoun 
used as subject, what case of the pronoun was repeated before self f 
Exercises. — Decline the personal pronouns — simple and compound. 
In what English words does grammatical gender survive ? Illustrate 



116 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

pronouns standing for a phrase, a clause, a sentence. Name the only 
double possessives in English. Name the demonstrative, the indefi- 
nite, the reciprocal, and the distributive pronouns. Explain the -s 
in ours, yours, hers, and theirs. Illustrate the various uses of it. 
Show that a noun or pronoun in the possessive may have a pronoun 
relating to it. What words and phrases were resorted to to avoid the 
use of his with inanimate things? Illustrate the use of the simple 
personal pronouns as reflexives. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE PRONOUN — ( Continued) 
DECLENSION OF O.E. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

SINGULAR 

he, 'he,' neo, 'she,' hit, 'it,' 

his, hire, his, 

him, hire, him, 

hine ; hi ; hit ; 



Nom. 


ic, 'I, 1 «u, 


thou,' 


Gen. 


mln, 'Sin, 




Dat. 


me, • fie, 




Ace. 


me(mec); fie^ 

PLURAL 


ec); 




Nom. we, 


ge, 




Gen. ure, 


eower 




Dat. us, 


eow, 



Ace. us(tisie). eow(eowic). 



hi, hie, 
hira, 
him, 
hi, hie. 



DECLENSION OF THE O.E. DEMONSTRATIVE SE, 

'the,' 'that.' 

SINGULAR 





MAS. 


FEM. 


NEUT. 


Nom. 


se, 


seo, 


Saet, 


Gen. 


fises, 


fiaere, 


fiaes, 


Dat. 


fisem, fiam, 


tfsere, 


fisem, fiam, 


Ace. 


fione, 


«a, 


fiset, 


Instr. 


*y, 


fieere, 


«y; 



117 



118 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

PLURAL 

Nom. fta, 

Gen, ftsera, 'Sara, 

Datt ftsem, ^am, 

Ace. fta. 

A Comparison of our personal pronouns with these O.E. 
forms shows 

1. That all our pronoun forms of the first and second persons are 
those of the O.E. personal pronouns. / — capitalized to distinguish it 
from the prefix i of the past participle, Professor Lounsbury says — is 
ic minus c ; mine and thine are mln and filn plus e ; my and thy are 
mm and (Sin minus n and with I changed to y ; and our, your, ye, and 
you are ure, ebwer, ge, and eow but slightly changed. 

2. That he, his, him, her, and it, of the third personal pronouns, 
are the O.E. personal forms he, his, him, hire, and hit but slightly 
changed. But she, they, their, and them are seo, fid, fiaira or fidra, and 
fisem or fidm of the demonstrative se — transferred and made personal 
in Mn.E. 

3. That the objective forms of our personal pronouns, except it, 
are the O.E. dative forms. Our me, thee, him, her, us, and you are 
not the accusative mec, fiec, hine, hi, usic, and eowic, but the dative 
me, fie, him, hire, us, and eow, — four of which had, even in O.E., 
forced their way into the accusative, crowding mec, fiec, usic, and 
eowic into the second place. And when the plurals of the demonstra- 
tive se supplanted those of the third personal pronouns, the dative 
fi&m, and not the accusative fid, gives us our objective them. 

4. That you, the O.E. dative eow, has worked its way into the 
nominative also, and has ousted ye 1 except in poetry and solemn 



1 Ye is the exclusive form for the nominativ«e in Chaucer, and in the King- James 
Version of the Bible — which, however, in this respect, as in others, reflects usage 
older than 1611. Shakespeare uses ye and you indiscriminately. You for ye is found 
as early as the fifteenth century. You is now both nominative and objective. 






THE PRONOUN 119 

address ; and that this same dative plural you has displaced the 
nominative thou as well as the accusative thee. 

5. That, but for the substitution of the second person plural for 
the singular, the dative singular thee 1 would have driven out the nom- 
inative thou, as its prototype fie had driven out the accusative tSec. 

6. That the demonstrative fioet is our demonstrative and relative 
that; and the instrumental fiy is our the in adverb clauses of degree, 
as in " Success is more certain the sooner we begin." 

DECLENSION OF THE MN.E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

SING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU. 

Nom. who, which, what, 

Pos. whose, , [whose], 

Obj. whom. which. what. 

DECLENSION OF THE O.E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

NEUT. 

hwset, 
hwses, 

hwsem, hwam, 
hwset, 
hwy. 

1 The dative-nominative thee was rapidly establishing itself when checked by this 
substitution. But it appears often when the second person singular is retained. 
Shakespeare frequently uses it, as in " How agrees the devil and thee about thy soul ? " 
" Does it not, think' 'st thee, stand it now upon ? " 

F. B. Gummere, Phil. Journal, Vol. IV, shows that euphony does not explain 
this use of thee. In Elizabethan literature, thee is common as a nominative ; it is 
found as late as Dryden and Pope. It ousted thou from the dialects. In the familiar 
speech of the Quakers, the dative-nominative thee is generally used for thou, and is 
no more ungrammatical with them than is you for ye or thou with other people. 

The reasons given for this substitution of thee for thou are (1) the use of the ethical 
dative, and (2) the use of the dative with impersonal verbs, as in "me thinks," " me 



MAS. AND 


FEM. 


Nom. 


hwa, 'who,' 


Gen. 


hwaes, 




Dot. 


hwgem, 


hwam, 


Ace. 


hwone. 




Inst. 







120 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Remarks. — 1. The same forms are used in the singular and the 
plural ; and hwa and hwone — who and whom — are masculine or 
feminine. 

2. Which, compounded of him -f lie, or hwy + lie, cannot have a 
possessive whose. 

3. While theoretically the interrogative whose may, as in O.E., be 
the possessive of the neuter what, it is, in actual use, confined to per- 
sons, and is the possessive of the interrogative icho only. 

4. In the interrogatives, as in other words, the O.E. initial hw 
appears in Mn.E. as wh, in spite of the fact that in pronunciation h 
precedes w. 

5. As in personal pronouns so in the interrogative whom — and 
in the relative also — the old dative in -m is our objective. But the 
accusative what, like the accusative it, is our objective. 

6. Our interrogative adverb, why, is the instrumental hwy ; and 
how is from the same root. 

7. Which and what are interrogative adjectives as well as pro- 
nouns ; as, "What manner of man is this?" " Which offer did you 
accept?" 

KELATIVE PRONOUNS 

The prime distinction of relative pronouns is not that 
they relate to other words, but that they relate to words in 
other clauses, bind the clauses together, and at the same 
time indicate the subordinacy in thought of the clauses in 
which they stand. 

seems," "if thee wel hadde liked." The dative being the only form of the pronoun 
used with this verb, it came to be regarded as the proper form for subject when the 
verb became personal. „ 

Me for nominative is universal baby-talk, and is colloquial in idiom, as in "Who 
is there?" "Me. 19 

Only with the second personal pronoun plural, however, did the dative-nominative 
get a firm hold. 



THE PRONOUN 121 

1. The O.E. demonstrative se, seo, cfwt, either alone or 
along with the indeclinable 2fe, was used as a relative. The 
&cet — in its modern form that — has been retained in this 
office, is our oldest relative pronoun, and is indeclinable 
throughout. 

2. Our other relative pronouns — ivho, which, and ivhat — 
are the interrogatives changed 1 to relatives. In this transi- 
tion, which preceded ivho. They are declined like the inter- 
rogatives, except that ivhich has a possessive whose. 2 This, 
however, is not formed from the nominative ; but is ety- 
mologically the possessive of ivhat turned over to ivhich. 

3. The essential differences in use between ivho, which, 
that, and what, are these : who, ivhich, and that once related 
alike (1) to words denoting mere animals and things, and 
(2) to words denoting persons; but which gradually drove 
who from the first office, and who and that drove 3 which 
from the second. That still performs both offices, though, 
unlike the other relatives, it cannot stand in the objective 
after a preposition, as : — 

" The book that I asked for," not " The book for that I asked." 

1 In the order of growth, simple sentences containing- interrogatives naturally pre- 
cede complex sentences, in which alone relatives are found. 

The metamorphosis is thus illustrated by Professor Whitney : " Who did it ? " " We 
saw the man" is equal to "We saw the man [of whom the inquiry was made] who 
did it," is equal to "We saw the man who did it." "Which barked?" "I see the 
dog " is equal to " I see the dog which barked." 

2 It is not true that this whose is rarely employed except in poetry ; it is in general 
use in prose. Those who regard good usage as a sufficient warrant may employ it freely. 

3 This double displacement, beginning in the seventeenth century, is now complete. 



122 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

What l is used only of mere things, and then only when 
the antecedent is suppressed. 

The relative that is almost always restrictive ; 2 that is, it 
introduces a clause which, while adding to the meaning of 
the antecedent, narrows the application of it. Who and 
which are prevailingly unrestrictive, but, like that, are 
restrictive 3 also. 

4. Since who, which, and that are all eligible to restrictive 
clauses, it is often, when the antecedent does not name both 
persons and things, left to euphony to decide what relative 
to use. It is thought that after same, very, all, the inter- 
rogative who, the indefinite it, and adjectives in the super- 
lative, that is preferable to who or which. 



1 Doing duty for the antecedent also, this relative, like ivho and the old-fashioned 
whoso, in " Who ehooseth uie must give and hazard all he hath," and " Whoso mocketh 
the poor reproacheth his Maker," Professor Sweet calls a condensed relative. We 
may indeed say, " What he needs that he should have." 

2 Here is a restrictive clause : " Ice that is formed in March is porous." These are 
unrestrictive: "Ice, which is water frozen, forms at 32° Fahrenheit"; "Columbus, 
who discovered America, in 1U92, died at Valladolid in 1506." The restrictive clause, 
closely connected with the rest of the sentence, is not set off by the comma ; the 
unrestrictive clause, loosely connected, is. The unrestrictive relative is equal to and 
he, and she, and, it, or and they, and "has a merely continuative force." 

3 While, as Bain remarks, it might "be a clear gain" to confine who and which to 
unrestrictive clauses, usage does not so confine them. 

The wide use of who and which in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying 
that they occur after this, that, these, and those, and hence are used to avoid repetitions 
of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing who and which in re- 
strictive clauses, but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that who and which stand in such 
clauses oftener without, than with, this, that, these, and those preceding them ; and 
(2) that they stand thus oftener than that itself does. Which stands thus oftener 
than who does. 



THE PRONOUN 123 

5. The relative is often omitted when, if expressed, it 
would be in the objective/ as : — 

" The men we have advised and the methods we have pursued" ; 
"We see it in the food he eats, the exercise he takes, the air he 
breathes." 

6. Which points back to (1) infinitive and other phrases, 
and (2) to clauses, as : — 

" They intend to embark at once, which is the proper thing to do " ; 
"He proposed embarking at once, to which safety urged"; "The 
leaders are honest, which is a great deal." 

7. Which and what point forward to clauses, as : — 

"And, which became him well, he confessed his fault" ; " What is 
more to the point, he told the truth.'''' 

8. Which and what, while connecting clauses, may be used 
as adjectives, as : — 

"She promised to go home; for which place 2 she soon set out" ; 
\ " She gathered together what stuff she had." 

9. For which, with at, from, to, by, in, on, and upon, we 
may substitute when, where, whence, whither, whereby, where- 

I in, whereon, and whereupon. 

I 

I 1 Its omission in the nominative was once common, as in " I have a mind presages 
me such thrift." 

2 When so used, the noun that which modifies is repeated, in form or in substance — 
i as above — from the leading clause. Used as an adjective or as a pronoun, which was 
' preceded by the ; as, "He spied the roll, the which he hastily caught up"; "Let 
gentleness my strong enforcement be, in the ivhich hope I blush." 



124 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

10. As x and but 2 are by some called relatives in such 
sentences as these : — 

"His conduct is not such as I admire"; " There is no one but 
knows it." 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — The O.E. Personal Pronouns 
and the Demonstrative. Six-fold Comparison of the O.E. with the 
Mn.E. Declension of the O.E. and Mn.E. Interrogates, and Remarks 
thereon. Relative Pronouns — Points thereon. 

Questions. — Show that all of our Mn.E. personal pronoun forms are 
O.E. personal or demonstrative forms slightly changed. Show that 
all our objective personal forms, except it, are O.E. dative forms. 
When was this substitution of case-forms begun ? What in O.E. 
is our you ? What did it displace ? What in Mn.E. has you dis- 
placed ? But for the substitution of the plural pronoun for the 
singular in address, what would thee have displaced? The O.E. 
demonstrative Beet is what in Mn.E. ? The O.E. instrumental f5y is 
what in Mn.E.? In Chaucer, and in the English Bible of 1611, ye is 
used how ? In Shakespeare how ? You is now what ? How does 
Shakespeare frequently use thee ? What has Professor Gummere 
shown respecting thee ? Reasons for the substitution of thee for thou ? 
Only with what personal pronoun did the dative-nominative get a 
footing ? Of what genders are the interrogative who and whom ? The 
composition of which ? Can whose be the possessive of which f Our 

1 Expanding- the illustrative sentence into " His conduct is not such as that is 
which I admire," as may be regarded as a conjunctive adverb. 

2 But used after a negative, as here, may be expanded thus : " There is no one but 
(=except) him who knows it," showing but to be a preposition. 

But xchat for but alone or but that should not be used to connect an adverb clause ; 
as, " He is not so bad but or but that (not but what) he might be worse." 



THE PRONOUN 125 

interrogative whose is, in use, the possessive of what ? The O.E. 
initial hw is spelled how in Mn.E.? Is the modern spelling true to 
the pronunciation? Our objective ivhom is what case-form in O.E. ? 
Our objective what and it are what O.E. case-forms ? Our interroga- 
tive why and how what ? Which and what are used how ? The 
prime distinctions of relative pronouns ? Our relative that is what in 
O.E. ? Is it declinable in Mn.E. ? Its rank as to age ? Our relatives 
who, which, and what were originally what ? Explain their transition 
into relatives. Our relative whose from what ? How may it be used 
now ? What were, and what now are, the differences in use between 
the relatives who, ivhich, what, and that 9 What is the difference 
between a restrictive and an unrestrictive clause ? What relative is 
almost always restrictive ? What other relatives may be ? When, in 
restrictive clauses, is that preferable to ivho and ivhich ? What governs 
in the choice ? When is the relative often omitted ? Which may 
point back to what ? May point forward to what ? Which and 
what, while connecting clauses, are sometimes what part of speech ? 

\ What must be repeated — in form or in substance — when which is 
so used ? For what words is the use of but what reprehensible ? 
Exercises. — Decline the O.E. personal pronouns, and the demon- 

1 strative se. Show from what in O.E. each of our personal pronouns 
is derived. What does Professor Sweet call what ? When may what 
have an antecedent expressed ? Illustrate the position of such ante- 
cedent. Illustrate the uses of the words that may take the place 
of which with certain prepositions. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE PRONOUN — ( Continued) 
COMPOUND KELATIVE PRONOUNS 

SING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU. 

Nom. whoever, 1 whosoever, 1 

Pos. whosever, whosesoever, 

Obj. whomever. whomsoever. 

Whichever and whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever have 
no possessive, and are alike in nominative and objective. 

WRONG CASE-FORMS 

In Elizabethan and later literature there is great con- 
fusion in the case-forms of pronouns. These ungram- 
matical constructions may occur, it is thought, from eight 
causes : — 

1. Attraction. — The pronoun was often attracted into 
the case of the adjacent relative, expressed or under- 
stood, as : — 

1 Great care is needed in handling the forms of these pronouns. These sentences 
by well-known authors do not contain the right forms: "Poets may be permitted an 
execration or two. against whomsoever changes their words as well as against whom- 
soever moves their bones " ; "I shall want you to meet whosoever you like, and to be 
friendly with whomever pleases you" ; "The people elect whosoever they wish to be 
president." 

126 



THE PRONOUN 127 

11 1 have come to be known as her whom your uncle trusted " ; 
" When him we serve's away " ; "I do not love the lord as he that's 
second to thyself." 

2. Euphony. — It is difficult to pronounce m after d or t; 
hence men avoid it by saying 

44 All debts are closed between you and J" ; " No child but /." 

3. Analogy. — The influence of the stock-phrases, you 
and I, he and i, so frequent in the nominative, keeps / 
in between you and 7/ especially since the you is not changed 
in becoming objective. 

A pronoun in the objective, properly used after as in 
■ such sentences, as: — 

"I obey my father as him that has a right to obedience," 

may lead to the misuse of the objective in such sentences as 

44 You are not so good as me." 

4. Separation. — The word that should determine the 
case of the pronoun fails to do it because of its distance 
from the pronoun, as : — 

44 1 shall think the better of myself and thee during my life ; /for 
a valiant lion and thou for a true prince." 

5. Vacillation. — The writer begins with the pronoun in 
the objective, and afterward decides to end with a finite 
verb instead of an infinitive, as : — 

1 The expression " Between you and I," which Dr. E. A. Abbott says was a regular 
Elizabethan idiom, Professor Sweet thinks is due to the grammatical reaction against 
i what was regarded as the vulgarism of me in place of /. 



128 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

11 One whom all the world knew was so wronged" (instead of to be 
so wronged) ; u Whom do men say that lam f" (instead of call me). 

6. Confusion. — The writer seems to be in doubt whether 
certain words as but, than, etc. ought to be regarded as 
prepositions or as conjunctions, as : — 

4 'There is no one but he whose being I do fear"; "He seems 
mightier than them." 

7. Anacoluthon. — The construction changes, and thus 
throws the pronoun used out of syntax, as: — 

" She, Claudio, that you wronged, look you restore" ; "And he 
my husband best of all affects." 

8. Position. 1 — The subject usually standing before the 
verb and the objective after it, the writer is unconsciously 
influenced to such locutions as these : — 

" Who do you think I saw standing on deck ? " " It is me " ; 2 "He 
that men call a poet they listen to"; "I'll tell you who time ambles 
withal, who time trots withal, toho" etc. 



1 Jespersen, from whom much of the above is condensed, thinks that position is re- 
sponsible for the change of the O.E. dative absolute to the Mn.E. nominative absolute, 
illustrated thus : "Him destroyed, all this will follow " = "He destroyed, all," etc. 

8 Professor Sweet thinks that me is used in " It is me " because of its analogy with 
he, she, and we in the corresponding assertions, " It is he," " It is she," " It is we." 

Along with Ellis, Alford, and others, Sweet defends "It is me" — claiming for it, 
however, that it is colloquial only. One may easily satisfy himself that it is almost un- 
known in literature — especially American. The grammarian may concede that it is 
used in colloquial speech — especially in England. So much authority the locution has; 
no more, as yet, we think. 



THE PBONOUN 129 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 

Adjective pronouns are words that at one time modify 
nouns ; at another, take the place of nouns. 

Adjective pronouns are quite irregular — differing from 
each other in respect to Number, Case, and the use of the 
Articles a and the. 

1. Number. — (1) The adjective pronouns another, each, 
either, neither, etc. are used only in the singular; (2) both, 
few, and several are used only in the plural ; (3) all, any, 
some, such, etc. are used in both numbers ; (4) one and other 
; have the regular plural ending -s ; (5) this and that, the 
irregular vowel change plus e, seen in these 1 and those 1 ; and 
(6) enough, none, some, such, and most of the others have 
the plural like the singular. 

I 2. Case. — (1) None, 2 some, this, that, and most of the re- 
mainder have no possessive case ; and (2) another, former, 
| latter, one, and other have a possessive, and form it with 
an apostrophe before the -s. 

3. The Articles. — (1) Any, enough, none, this, that, 3 etc. take 
neither a nor the; (2) all, one 3 same, etc., take only the; few 

1 " These and those are doublets — varying forms of the plural of this." — Skeat. 
I 2 None = ne + an, ' not one,' is no longer used with a noun ; like mine, ours, etc., 
I it is absolute, except in none other. JVo takes its place when the noun is expressed. 

3 A candidate, thon, a contracted form of that one, has been proposed in order to 

I meet our lack of a personal pronoun with a common gender. We now awkwardly use 
two pronouns in such a sentence as this : " If you see John or Jane, tell him or her that 
• I am well " ; or we inaccurately use only him or them, With this word we could say : 
i " If you see John or Jane, tell thon {that one) that I am well " ; " Each boy and girl 
must learn thorCs lesson." Usage has not yet adopted the would-be pronoun, we hardly 
need say. 

H. SCH. GRAM. 9 



130 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

and little take a, 1 but in taking it change from a negative 
meaning to a positive ; (4) many takes a 2 after it ; (5) all 
takes the after it only ; and (6) whole takes the before 
it only. 

This points (1) back, and (2) forward, to an infinitive or 
other phrase and to a clause, as : — 

"To die for one's country — this is a duty " ; "Living for one's 
country — this is as noble as dying for it"; "The papers had been 
destroyed, but this could not be proved " ; "This is one's privilege : to 
serve others 1 ''; "Every man's duty includes this: care for his 
body" ; "This is one of the commandments : l Honor thy father and 
thy mother.' 1 " 

That points back to an infinitive or other phrase and to a 
clause, as : — 

"To love one's enemies, that is a hard thing to do"; "The 
Mohammedan made ivar upon the infidel ; that the Koran bade him 
do" ; "A stitch in time saves nine; that is a proverb of thrift." 

When this and that, the one and the other, refer to things 
already mentioned, this refers to the last mentioned, and 
that to the first mentioned ; the one refers to the first men- 
tioned, and the other to the last mentioned. The plurals 
have the same reference. To illustrate : — 



1 "To our great joy, a few of the crew were saved and a little of the cargo." Few, 
like many, is used of number; little, like much, of quantity. 

2 " Many man in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher mann, Latin mul- 
tus vir y and the like, until the thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to 
emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number." — Prof.F.A. 
March. 



THE PRONOUN 131 

"The moon and the sun shine; this by its own light, that by 
reflected light " ; " The moon and the sun shine ; the one, or the jor- 
mer, by reflected light, the other, or the latter, by its own light." 

The indefinite adjective pronoun one has supplanted 
the O.E. man, and is now in general use. With the mean- 
ing of the French on (Lat. homo, ' man ' ), and of I, we, you, 
they, some people in English, one is a very convenient, all- 
round word. 

Many of the words set down as adjective pronouns are at 
times used as adverbs — all, enough, little, and much, and 
their comparatives and superlatives less and least, more and 
most, none, some, etc., as : — 

All over, strong enough, little used, less worthy, least employed, 
much in vogue, more enraged, most happy, none too soon, some 1 
twenty years ago, etc. 

Usage is in favor of any one else's, no one else's, some- 
body else's, nobody else's, instead of any one's else, no one's 
else, etc., as : — 

" He should have to go an\l fight in some one else's quarrel." 

There is almost no authority for placing -'s upon one or 
body. The reason for attaching it to else was given, p. 101, 
foot-note. 

Other Proscribed Pronomial Locutions are given below. 2 

1 Some = ' nearly,' 'about,' has been proscribed, but even in O.E. and all the way- 
down, some with numerals is common, as in " Young published his Travels in 
France some eighteen months after the Reflections.' 1 ' 1 

2 In the nine following paragraphs we give alternative locutions — only the second 
of which in each paragraph is allowed by many grammarians and critics ; the first they 



132 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Declension of the Compound 
Relative Pronouns. The Eight possible Causes of wrong Case-Forms. 
Adjective Pronouns — Irregularity in Number, Case, and the Use of 
the Articles. Proscribed Pronominal Locutions. 

Questions. — What, added to simple relative pronouns, makes them 
compound ? What ones are alike in nominative and objective and in 

utterly condemn. We are able, on the warrant of usage, to say that both readings in 
each paragraph are correct. 

1. We may use each other with more than two ; we may use one another instead. 
We may say, " All departments of thought illuminate each other" or "illuminate one 
another.'''' 

2. We may use one another with only two ; we may use each other instead. We 
may say, " History and biography much resemble one another in the pages of Carlyle," 
or "much resemble each other." 

8. We may use all, both, and tvhole with a preposition and a noun or pronoun fol- 
lowing ; we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun or pronoun. We 
may say, "The meaning of all of them," u Both of them, speak," "The whole of 
Daffydowndilly's life," or " The meaning of them all," " They both speak," "DafFy- 
downdilly's whole life." 

4. We may use the pronouns either and neither, as the conjunctions either and 
neither, with more than two ; we may use any one and none instead. We may say, 
" Either of his four Pastorals," '■''Neither of the three Competitors" or "Any one 
of his four Pastorals," "None or no one of the three Competitors." 

5. We may use he or some other pronoun after the indefinite one ; we may repeat 
the one instead. We may say, " One must feel intellectually secure before he can 
venture to dress shabbily," or " before one can venture," etc. 

6. We may use no with the indefinite one ; we may use not instead. We may say, 
" No one of these instructions did they change," or " Not one of these," etc. 

7. We may use such before an adjective and its noun ; we may use so instead. We 
may say, " Such widely different ways," " Such an abject lot," or " Ways so widely 
different," " So abject a lot." 

8. We may use either in the sense of each ; we may use each instead. We may 
say, "The chief officers of either army," or " of each army." 

9. We may use none in the plural ; we may use none in the singular. We may 
say, " My right there are none to dispute," or " there is none to dispute." 



THE PRONOUN 133 

having no possessive? What are the liabilities to mistake in the 
use of these pronouns? Account for the mistakes in the use of 
case-forms of simple relatives. How does Jespersen account for the 
change of the O.E. dative to the Mn.E. nominative in absolute con- 
structions ? How does Professor Sweet account for the colloquial 

1 use of me in "It is me"? What authority can be given for that 
locution ? What are adjective pronouns ? Give some that are used 

i only in the singular ; some used only in the plural ; some, in both 
numbers ; some, with the regular plural ending -s ; some with the 
stem vowel changed in the plural ; and some with the plural like the 

1 singular. Give some without possessive case ; and some with the pos- 
sessive in -'s. Give some that take neither a nor the ; some that take 

j only the ; some that take a with change from negative to positive ; one 

J that takes a after it only ; one that takes the after it only ; one that 
takes the before it only. These and those are what? None com- 
pounded of what and used how? For what is the candidate thon 

j proposed ? Why proposed ? This points back and forward to what ? 
That, back to what? The distinction in reference between this and 

j that, and between the one and the other. One has supplanted what 
O.E. word? This indefinite adjective pronoun is used in place of 
what French word? What English words? What adjective pro- 
nouns are sometimes adverbs ? Which proper — " any one^s else " or 
u any one else^s " f Refer to chapter IX, and give the reason for the 
usage in respect to the place of this possessive sign. How may some 
be used ? Defend the nine other proscribed pronominal locutions. 

Exercises. — Decline the compound relative pronouns. Illustrate 
the causes influencing the use of the wrong case-forms. Illustrate 
the use of this, that, of this and that, and of the one and the other. 
Illustrate the use of both forms in each of the nine proscribed pro- 
nominal locutions. What is the authority for both, and to what 
respect is this authority entitled ? 






CHAPTER XIII 

THE ADJECTIVE 

Origin. — None of the original words were exclusively 
nouns or adjectives or verbs, but all of these indifferently. 
Laying hold of certain qualities or actions of concrete- 
things, they became nouns or adjectives or verbs to suit 
the speaker's needs. 

The capacity of some words for these various duties 
exists yet, as : — 

" My love"; "Love potion" ; "Hove." 

Nouns still pass 1 easily into adjectives, and adjectives 
into nouns, as : — 

"Cotton cloth," "Iron spoons"; "The news is warlike"; " Re- 
spect your betters" ; "His superior summoned him"; " The true" 
"The false" ; "The righteous," " The wicked." 

A Distinction between Adjectives and Nouns. — That either 
part of speech may become the other implies a distinction 
between them. Nouns, as such, name; adjectives, as such, 

1 Each part of speech, in passing- into the other, abandons its old modifications, and 
does not assume all that belong- to the part it becomes. The noun leaves behind it its 
case and its plural sign, and does not take comparison ; the adjective loses its com- 
parison, and does not adopt gender or necessarily the plural sign. 

As seen above, the or some pronoun in the possessive is used to convert an adjective 
into an abstract noun or into a concrete — " The true" " The righteous" " His 
superior." 

134 



THE ABJECTIVE 135 

do not. Adjectives denote some quality or quantity, but 
denote it as belonging to, or existing in, a thing. If the 
quality be considered apart from the thing, the word that 
denotes it names it, and is an abstract noun — whiteness 
names what ivhite denotes. 

It follows, then, that as an adjective denotes some 
property of a thing, it must be used with a word express- 
ing the thing — a noun or a pronoun. 

Functions. — Some adjectives denote the qualities of 
things ; some, the number of things ; some, the quantity 
of things ; and some, the relations existing between things. 
These various offices are here illustrated : — 

" Good men " ; " Six marbles " ; " Much land " ; " This book." 

The quality, or property, denoted by an adjective may 
be assumed as belonging to the thing or it may be affirmed 
as belonging to it. Adjectives assumed are closely attached 
to their nouns, and immediately precede or follow 1 them; 
adjectives asserted are in the predicate. 

In denoting quality, number, quantity, or relation, as- 
sumed 2 adjectives lessen the things which their nouns 

1 Professor Earle's remark, "The French structure is still available when there 
is a touch of humor or pathos," tells but a fraction of the truth. Balance, euphony, 
rhythm, and emphasis, as well as humor or pathos, may draw the adjective after its 
noun. 

2 An adjective modifying a proper noun or denoting a necessary quality does not 
narrow the scope — Truthful George Washington and red blood equal in scope 
George Washington and blood. 

The asserted adjective is only unfolding what is implied in the noun, and therefore 
does not restrict the application of the noun. 



136 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

name — good men, six marbles, and this book do not apply 
to as many men, marbles, and books as men, marbles, and 
book do, for these apply to all ; and of much land there is 
less than there is of land, i.e. all land. In the language of 
logic, the adjective increases the intension of the noun, but 
decreases the extension. 

Adjectives modify * ntjuns by limiting their application 
or scope. 

Classification. — To prescribe the number or the quantity 
of things or to point out things by noting some quality of 
them or some relation which they bear, is to put bounds 
about the things — to define them. 

Adjectives that limit by denoting qualities are Descriptive 
Adjectives ; those that limit by pointing out, or numbering, 
things, 2 or by denoting quantity, are Definitive 3 Adjectives. 

1 Some adjectives modify not the simple noun but the noun already modified by 
adjectives. In "Every intelligent American citizen should vote," intelligent modifies 
citizen limited by American, and every modifies citizen limited by both American 
and intelligent. Adjectives are not then always of the same rank. When a distinction 
exists, it should be noted, for it determines the order of the adjectives and their 
punctuation. In a series of unequal rank, those most closely modifying the noun 
stand nearest to it, before or after, and no comma separates them. 

Assumed adjectives have the force of clauses. (1) A selection of such as predispose 
the reader to the assertion following ; (2) a rigid limitation of the number chosen ; and 
(3) a judicious placing of these — if possible, the longest nearest the noun — tell power- 
fully upon the thought and its expression. 

2 The definitive adjectives one, two, three, etc., and /n/, second, third, etc., are 
called Numeral Adjectives. One, tivo, three, etc., are Cardinal numerals; Ji?'i>i, 
second, third, etc., are Ordinal numerals. 

These numeral adjectives are often used as pronouns. When so used, we should 
call them adjective pronouns if their usual adjective function were not so much more 
pronounced than their pronominal. 

3 In treating of adjective pronouns, we spoke of many definitive adjectives. We call 



THE ABJECTIVE 137 

Definitions 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. 

A Descriptive Adjective is one that modifies by denoting quality. 

A Definitive Adjective is one that modifies by pointing out 
or numbering, or by denoting quantity. 

Inflection. — In O.E., the adjective is inflected — its inflec- 
tions changing with the change of the gender, the case, and 
the number of the noun it modifies. 

An O.E. noun has only one set of inflections, the vowel 
or the consonant; an O.E. adjective has the three sets of 
the three genders in each declension. If not preceded by 
the definite article, or by a demonstrative, or a possessive, 
pronoun, the adjective takes the endings 1 of a pronoun; 

them adjective pronouns, rather than pronominal adjectives, because their pro- 
nominal function seems so much more pronounced than their adjectival. 

Whatever the etymology or the history of the words we call adjective pronouns, — 
variously called by others, adjective pronouns, indefinite pronouns, and pronomi- 
nal adjectives, — we place no words in this class that are not used as adjectives and as 
pronouns. We therefore exclude from the list words that some include, such as, a, 
alone, else, every, no, only, sundry, the, etc. 

We exclude from this class the interrogative and the relatives which and what, and 
the numerals one, two, first, second, etc., because, though complying with the condition 
above, the dominating interrogative and relative function of the two pronouns, and the 
adjectival function of the numerals, compel another classification of them. " Good 
reasons must, of force, give place to better." 

Wherever the words classed as adjective pronouns are used as adjectives, they 
should be called adjectives. 

1 The endings of these a.ljectives differ in these respects from those of the O.E. 
nouns inflected on p. 93: that of the masculine accusative singular is -ne ; that of the 
feminine genitive and dative singular is -re ; that of the masculine and neuter dative 
singular is -um ; that of the nominative and accusative plural throughout is -e ; and 
that of the genitive plural throughout is -ra. These endings are nearly like those of the 
pronoun, p. 117, and justify the name pronominal given to adjectives when having 
these declensional endings. 



138 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

if thus preceded, it takes the endings of the consonant 1 
declension of nouns. 

These two diverse sets of declensional endings — the one 
called indefinite or pronominal, and the other definite 2 or 
nominal — were so confusing that, without either supplant- 
ing the other, both gave way. 

The only modification adjectives retain is comparison 
in its three degrees — Positive, Comparative, and Super- 
lative. 

Comparison. — 1. In -er and -est. In the Teutonic mem- 
ber of our family, the comparative of adjectives was usually 
formed by adding -is or -6s to the positive ; the superlative, 
by adding -ta to the comparative. 

In O.E., the s of the comparative -is or -os underwent rhotacism, 
became r ; the s of the superlative -ista or -5sta did not. When now 
the i or the o of the comparative -is or -5s and of the superlative -ista 
or -osta leveled to obscure e, and the a of the superlative, changed 
to e, disappeared, the comparative and superlative endings became -er 
and -est — as they are to-day. 

Adjectives Irregular in Comparison. — There are adjectives 

(1) whose different degrees are from different stems ; some 

(2) whose positive or comparative is wanting; and some 

(3) whose endings of comparison are peculiar. These in- 
heritances of ours from O.E. are here grouped: — 



1 Except that the genitive plural ending is usually -ra instead of -ena. 

2 The final -e in the definite form, and in the plural, of adjectives is a common sur- 
vival in Chaucer. The -en in our olden is possibly a survival. 



THE ABJECTIVE 



139 



POS. 

(Aft),* 

Bad, ) 
Evil, I 
111, J 



Far, 
Fore, 



COMP. SUPER. 

( aftmost or 
after, < „ 

( aftermost. 

worse, 3 worst. 

. \ farthest or 
farther, 4 



POS. COMP. 

( less 3 or 



Little, 2 

Many or 
Much, 

Near, 



( lesser, 



more, 



nearer, 3 



Old, 



Solder or 
elder, 



j farthermost. 

( foremost or 
former, ■< „ 

I first. 

__. , x _ _ . (furthest or #rw.*\ (outer or 
(Forth), further, 4 1 m , (Out), J 

( furthermost. ( utter, 

Good, better, best. 

j hindmost 5 or Under, -, 

j hindermost. 

„, x . \ inmost or 

(In), mner, < . 



Hind, hinder, 



Late, 



f innermost, 
j later or j latest or 
( latter, ( last. 



(UP), 
Top, 



upper, 



SUPER. 

least. 

most. 

( nearest or 
I next. 
( oldest or 
I eldest. 

outmost or 

outermost ; 

utmost or 
„ uttermost. 

undermost. 
j upmost or 
j uppermost. 

topmost. 



1 The words in curves are adverbs — the adjectives having 1 no positive form. 

2 For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size, 
smaller and smallest are substituted ; as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy. 

3 It is thought that worse and less are comparatives of O.E wyrs and Ides. The -S 
in worse and less did not become r ; that these adjectives are comparatives was there- 
fore overlooked. Worser and lesser — the one occasionally used, and the other more 
frequently — are consequently double comparatives. Nearer is also — near being a 
comparative of O.E. nedh. 

4 In further and farther — between which, Lounsbury says, "No distinction in 
good usage exists as yet," — an O.E. comparative suffix -ther is seen. "Further and 
farther are in general not differentiated . . . but further is preferred . . . when . . . 
quantity or degree is implied." — International Dictionary. 

5 In hindmost, foremost, utmost, etc., an O.E. superlative suffix -m or -ma is 
found. This -m strengthened itself with the ordinary superlative ending -est — the 
vowel changing to through force of the adverb most. These adjectives are con- 
sequently double superlatives. 



140 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Comparison. — 2. By the Use of Adverbs. Norman -French 
influence brought in a second method of comparison — that 
by the use of adverbs. 1 Those used in English are more 
and most, 2 less and least, as : — 

"More or less exemplary " ; "Most or least useful or awkward." 

This method was adopted for the sake of euphony, and 
its use rests largely upon individual taste. Compounded 
and polysyllabic adjectives, and adjectives ending in letters 
that do not blend musically with -er and -est, are those 
with which it is generally employed. 

-Er and -est added to adjectives always denote increase; 
the second method, restricted to the use of the adverbs less 
and least, is the one method available to denote decrease. 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adjectives — Origin, Functions, 
Classification, Inflection, Comparison in Two Ways. 

Questions. — The original words used how at first ? The capacity of 
some words for various duties now ? Show how adjectives pass into 
nouns, and nouns into adjectives, even now. In the transition, what 
does each part of speech abandon ? What may the do to an adjective ? 

1 Lounsbury says that in Aricren fiiwle, about 1220, one of the first recorded in- 
stances of this comparison is found. 

2 But note that these adverbs are compared in the old way. The O.E. superlative 
-St is in most and least. The O.E. comparative -s, unchanged to r, is the final letter 
of less; changed to r, it is the r in more. In this method of comparison, then, not 
the adjective, but the adverb modifying it, takes the O.E. endings -er and -est, with 
the vowel omitted. 



THE ABJECTIVE 141 

A distinction between nouns and adjectives ? The several functions of 
adjectives? The difference between an adjective assumed and an 
adjective affirmed ? Adjectives modify nouns how ? What adjectives 
do not limit the scope of the noun ? What besides humor or pathos 
may draw the assumed adjective after its noun ? Assumed adjectives 
have the force of what ? What besides the simple noun may adjectives 
modify ? and what changes in punctuation result ? Classify adjec- 
tives, and define them and their classes. Some definitives are called 
what? What adjectives only are called by us adjective pronouns? 
What inflections have O.E. adjectives ? What caused the dropping of 
these in M.E. ? What is meant by rhotacism ? In what ways is the 
comparison of some adjectives irregular ? Show how icorser, lesser, 
and nearer are double comparatives. Explain the ending most in 
hindmost, etc. The second method of comparison, what ? From 
whom borrowed? When is the first used? and when the second? 
Show how the first is used even in the second. -Er and -est added 
to adjectives denote what? What adverbs used to denote decrease 
of quality? 

Exercises. — Trace the development of -er and -est. Give the com- 
parison of irregular adjectives. Illustrate the two methods of compari- 
son, and tell when the second is used. What can you say of -ther and 
of -m or -ma ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE ADJECTIVE— {Completed) 

The form of the adjective expressing simple quality or 
quantity is in the Positive 1 Degree; the form expressing 
them in a greater measure or in a less is in the Com- 
parative 2 Degree; and the form expressing them in the 
greatest or in the least is in the Superlative 2 Degree. 

Definitions 

Comparison is a modification of the adjective (and the 
adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality or 
quantity in the things compared. 

The Positive Degree expresses simple quality or quantity. 

The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less 
measure of the quality or quantity. 

The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least 
measure of the quality or quantity. 

1 Even the positive implies comparison. " This orange is sweet " means that it has 
more than the sweetness of ordinary oranges. 

2 The comparative and the superlative express the measure relatively. "This orange 
is sweeter than that " and "This orange is the sweetest of all " do not mean that this 
one is very sweet, but that it is sweeter than the other, than the others. 

The measure may be increased or decreased by other adverbs than more and most, 

142 






THE ABJECTIVE 143 

Eule. — Adjectives and adverbs are compared by adding -er 
to the positive to form the comparative, and -est to the positive 
to form the superlative ; or by prefixing to the positive more 
and most or /ess and /east. 

Eules for Spelling. — In the comparative and the 
superlative of adjectives, 1 the only principles regulating 
our otherwise lawless orthography are seen. 

Rule I. — Final e is dropped 2 before a suffix beginning with 
a vowel; as, large, larger. 

Eule II. — Y after a consonant becomes / 3 before a suffix 
not beginning with /; as, happy, happier. 

Eule III. — In monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles 4 before 
a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, red, redder. 

Which Method is Gaining. — Comparison by the use of ad- 
verbs has made such inroads upon the older method that 
some have predicted the extinction of the latter. But 

less and least. We may say, " very, rather, somewhat sweet " ; "far, still, much 
sweeter," "by far or much the sweetest." 

1 These principles determine the spelling of other parts of speech — the Noun and 
the Verb, for example— as (1) horse, horses; live, living; (2) beauty, beauties; 
dry, dried; and (3) hat, hatter ; infer, inferred. But they are oftenest illustrated 
in the comparison of adjectives, and therefore are formulated here. 

2 The e is retained (1) after c and g when the suffix begins with a or o ; as peace- 
able, changeable, courageous ; (2) after o, as hoeing, shoeing ; and (3) when needed 
to preserve the identity of the word, as singeing, dyeing. 

The retention of e in (1) prevents the change of c and g to their guttural sounds. 

3 The y is retained in babyhood, and it does not change before -'s or in the plural of 
proper nouns, as lady's, the Marys, the Henrys. 

4 K and x are never doubled, as in look, looking ; one, oxen; and the s in gas is not 
doubled in gases. 



144 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

familiarity with the best English of to-day convinces one 
that usage is returning 1 to the older method. 

Some Adjectives not Compared. — Most definitive adjectives, 
and many descriptive, are not compared — their meaning 
not admitting increase or decrease. Yet some 2 of these, 
taken in less than their full signification, in the meaning 
of nearer or nearest to the position, are compared. 

Double Comparatives and Superlatives. — After the adop- 
tion of the second method of comparison, it became the 
fashion to use it to strengthen 3 the first. Double compara- 
tives seem to have been more in vogue than double super- 
latives. It hardly need be said that we do not use these 
double forms now. 

Faulty Comparison. — Care should be taken that the 
things compared are not (1) included 4 in classes to which 

1 In Hawthorne, Whitney, M. Arnold, Henry Taylor, Lowell, Thackeray, Martineau, 
Browning, Hutton, Buskin, and a host of others, such forms as cheerfulest, beauti- 
fulest, correcle8t, succincter, pitifulest, projitablest, distincter, cunninger, and 
nakedest are not uncommon. 

2 In our most reputable authors such words as straightest, chief est, directer, 
supremest, most exact, extremesi, divinest, more and as and so universal, and 
perfectest are found. 

s Lounsbury says that these double forms date from the fourteenth century, and 
are most prevalent in the second half of the sixteenth and the first half of the 
seventeenth. 

In King Lear, Shakespeare uses double comparatives — more corrupter, more 
harder, more heavier, etc. — a dozen times, and such double superlatives as most 
best, most dearest, and most poorest. 

Ben Jonson calls these double forms " a certain kind of English Atticism, or eloquent 
phrase of speech." 

4 These sentences wrongly include : " Solomon was the wisest, or the least wise, of 
(1) any of, or (2) all of, his predecessors or contemporaries or successors or all other 



THE ABJECTIVE 145 

they do not belong, or (2) excluded 1 from those to which 
they do. Of denotes inclusion ; than, exclusion. 

Comparative or Superlative with Two. — While there is 
respectable authority for the use of the superlative with 
two, good usage overwhelmingly favors the comparative 
instead, as : — 

"Dora is the more thoughtful of the two"; " Of his parents, the 
mother was the younger." 

First Three, or Three First ; Next Two, or Two Next. — 

There is respectable authority for three first, two next, etc., 
but usage overwhelmingly favors first three, next two, etc., 
instead. 

Proscribed Adjective Locutions. — Some critics, regardless of usage, 
condemn (1) such 2 before an adjective and its noun, and (2) a before 
a noun in the singular and one or two 3 after it. 

The Articles. — Two adjectives — an, or a, and the — are 
so common and have such varied and unique functions that 
they have secured a distinct name — Articles. An — from 
O.E. an, i one ' — shortened to a before a consonant sound, 

kings " ; " The pulpit in the coming century is to meet the hardest task it has encoun- 
tered." 

1 These wrongly exclude : " Solomon was wiser or less wise than (1) any ancient 
king, than (2) any of the ancient kings." 

2 Expressions like these: "such a beautiful soul" "such undying hatred" 
are as common in the best of literature as "so beautiful a soul" "hatred so 
undying " — alternative locations to which these critics would restrict us. 

3 Phrases like "a brief word or two" "an example or two" are more frequent 
than "one or two brief words" "one or two examples" — alternative locutions to 
which these critics would restrict us. 

H. SCH. GRAM. 10 



146 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

is called the indefinite article; and the — from O.E. fie, a 
collateral form of the demonstrative se, — is called the 
definite article. 

Points of Agreement between A 1 and The: 1 — 1. Either of 
these may modify a noun in the singular : — 

"A man, a horse, an apple, an heir, a unicorn "; " The man, the 
horse, the apple, the heir, the unicorn.'' 1 

2. Either may modify every 2 noun in a series in order to 
keep the nouns distinct in meaning and coordinate in 
rank : — 

" A boy should so arrange what he has to say that it should have 
a beginning, a middle, and an end" ; " The closeness, the spirit, the 
strength, and the simple beauty of his style are noteworthy." 

3. Either may be used before each of two or more 3 
adjectives modifying the same noun, when the qualities are 
to be kept distinct and prominent : — 

1 Of course we are not here speaking- (1) of the preposition a in ' He fasts a 
Friday"; or (2) of the dialectic a, the worn-down form of have, as in " She would a 
come"; or (3) of a, the corruption of he or she, as in "One night a left home." And 
we have seen that the in such a sentence as, " The more, the better," is not an article. 

2 Through the omission of the article in such sentences, even the best of authors 
sometimes slump together things they mean to keep apart, as in "Who never had 
a taste or emotion or enjoyment "; " The distinctions and analogies between the 
verse and prose of the poet"; "A forked bracket carries a larger and smaller 
pulley " ; " No greater difference between the older and newer nomenclature." 

8 Care is needed that this use of the article be not mistaken for that in 4. The mistake 
is impossible when the adjectives denote qualities that cannot co-exist, as in "A cold 
and a hot stove" ; " The definite and the indefinite article " ; it is possible when 
the adjectives denote qualities that may co-exist. 



THE ADJECTIVE 147 

" An observant, a thoughtful, and a very intelligent man is speak- 
ing" ; " Jeremy Taylor was the richest and the most captivating 
rhetorician of his day." 

4. Either may be used before each 1 of two or more 
adjectives when modifying different nouns that are not all 
expressed : — 

" The difference between a bad and a good man is this " ; "It can 
never reconcile the secular and the devout, the pagan and the Chris- 
tian mind" 

5. Either may be used to make proper nouns common : — 
"A Daniel come to judgment ! " " He is the Solon of the Senate." 

6. Neither is used before nouns 2 taken in their widest 
sense : — 

" Gold is costlier than silver" ; "Woman is the peer of man"; 
" Oak is stronger than maple " ; " Truth in the end will vanquish 
error." 

Points of Distinction between A and The. — 1. A is used 
with nouns in the singular only; the, with nouns in the 
singular or the plural : — 

" Apeach" ( but not a peaches) ; " The peach, the peaches." 

2. A is used with a concrete noun ; the, more frequently 
than a, with an abstract noun as well : — 

1 See foot-note to 2, third and fourth sentences, for mistakes arising from the omis- 
sion of the article in such sentences. 

2 These sentences are incorrect : " This is a bad sort of a day "; " What kind of a 
man is he ? " "The anger is a short madness." 



148 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

"Arose" (but not a sweetness of arose) ; " The sweetness of a 
rose, or of the rose.'''' 

3. A 1 distinguishes one individual from others; the, 1 
one class from others, as : — 

" A farmer is ploughing, and a blacksmith is shoeing a horse " ; 
" The farmer ploughs, and the blacksmith shoes horses." 

4. A is indefinite, meaning i any one ' ; the is definite, 
meaning t that one/ as : — 

"Hand me a, 'any,' book"; "Hand me the, 'that,' book." 

5. A may mean 'one/ 'each/ or 'every'; the is not 
used so freely in such senses, as : — 

"Both are of a (not the) length"; "Sixty pounds to a (not 
the) man." 

6. A can be used with few and little to convert negative 
notions into positive ; the cannot be used so, as : — 

" A few passengers and a little of the luggage (not the few and the 
little) were lost." 

7. The may be retrospective in its reference; a never 
is, as : — 

1 At times the articles approach so closely in force, or have so little force, that it 
needs deliberation to settle whether a should be used or the or neither a nor the. Who 
sees a broad distinction between " farmer uses a hoe," "A blacksmith uses a 
hammer ," and "The farmer uses the hoe," "The blacksmith uses the hammer'''' ? 
between "The atmospheric pressure of 15 lbs. to a square inch" and "The atmos- 
pheric pressure of 15 lbs. to the square inch " ? between " She is down with a head- 
ache, " " She is down with the headache, " and " She is down with headache " t 

Yet we may say that no two words in the language need more delicate handling. 



1 



THE ABJECTIVE 149 

"I found a cap and an oilskin cape ; the cap and the oilskin (not 
a cap and an oilskin) are yours." 

8. The can change an adjective into an abstract noun or 
a concrete ; a cannot, as : — 

" Wordsworth showed how deep down the pathetic and the tender 
(not a pathetic and a tender) go in common life " ; " The gay (not a 
gay) will laugh when thou art gone." 

9. The may be used in place of his, its, or your ; a may 
not be, as : — 

' ' Plucked my nipple from his boneless gums and dashed the brains 
out" ; "Such rebel blood that will not be thawed from the true 
quality " ; "You shake the head." 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adjectives — Degrees. Rules 
for Spelling. Which Method of Comparison Gaining. Faulty Com- 
parison. Proscribed Adjective Locutions. The Articles — Points of 
Agreement and of Disagreement. 

Questions. — Definition of comparison? Of the three degrees? 
Rules for forming the comparative and the superlative. What even 
does the positive degree imply ? Show that the comparative and the 
superlative do not express measure absolutely. By what adverbs other 
than more and most, less and least, may increase or decrease be 
expressed ? What other parts of speech than the adjective illustrate 
the rules for spelling ? Why are the rules given here ? Give the 
exceptions to the rules. Give adjectives from modern authors show- 
ing that the method in -er, -est is gaining favor. Give some showing 
that comparison is not restricted to adjectives whose meaning admits 



150 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

of increase or decrease. Double comparatives and superlatives, what ? 
Why used and when? The faulty comparisons fall under what two 
heads ? Which degree, the comparative or the superlative, preferable 
with two ? Which preferred, first three or three first, etc. ? What 
are the articles ? The derivation of each ? When an used and when 
a ? Give the six points of agreement between a and the. Give the 
nine points of distinction between a and the. 

Exercises. — Give the rules and the exceptions to them that account 
for the spelling of happiest, referred, gases, duties, shoeing, putting, 
oxen, dyeing, horses, loving, changeable, lady's, dried. In sentences 
of your own illustrate (1) the points of agreement in the use of a and 
the ; (2) the points of disagreement ; and (3) give cases when a and 
the differ so little that either of them may be used or neither. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE VERB 

- A sentence has two great parts — a subject and a predi- 
cate. The subject names or denotes that of which the 
predicate asserts something. 

A sentence is framed to impart to hearer or reader some- 
thing he is supposed not to know. This information is 
contained in the assertion made by the predicate ; and the 
part of speech that makes the assertion is called a Verb. 

The verb has many inflections; and it is the part of 
speech in English whose inflections have undergone the 
greatest change. Grammar consists in large measure of 
the treatment of the verb. 

Definition. — A Verb is a word that asserts 1 action, being, 

or state of being. 

In the sentence 

"John limps," 

the verb limps asserts the act fully ; in 

" John strikes," 

1 Asserts is here used to mean declare or question or wish or command or 
exclaim or to unite in any way the verbal sign of action, being, or state with that of 
the actor. 

151 



152 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

some word, as Peter, naming the receiver of the act, 
must be added to strikes to help it make a full assertion. 
Verbs that represent the act as passing over from a 
doer to a receiver are called Transitive 1 Verbs; verbs (1) 
that do not so represent the act, and those (2) that 
express mere being or state of being are Intransitive Verbs. 

Definitions 

verbs classified with respect to meaning 

A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object. 
An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an 
object. 

All verbs, but not all of their forms, assert. Of the 
forms that do not assert, one is 

THE PARTICIPLE 

"The birds, singing their morning songs, wakened us." 

Here singing expresses an action, but does not assert 
it; the assertion is in wakened. But singing does more 
than express action, it modifies birds; hence it is not a 

*If we say, " Peter was struck by John," the verb is still transitive ; but Peter, the 
name of the receiver, is here the subject, and not, as before, the object complement. 
The object of a transitive verb, then, the name of the receiver of the action, maybe the 
object complement, or it may be the subject. 

A verb transitive in one connection may be intransitive in another; as, "He 
writes a letter" and "He icrites rapidly" ; "The sun melts the snow," and "The 
snow melts." The verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or plainly 
understood. 



THE VERB 153 

verb simply but an adjective as well. Having a dual 
nature — one part of it verbal and one adjectival — sing- 
ing 1 is here a Participle. 2 

Definition. — The Participle is a form of the verb that 
partakes of the nature of an adjective, and expresses the 
action or being as assumed. 

Remarks. — Participles are of the greatest service in enabling us 

— 1. to slur the less important acts, and reserve the verb proper 

for the more important; as, "Not .considering or knowing the 

difference in the money or the greater cheapness of the bread, I 

J asked for three-penny worth." 

2. To abridge and solidify the sentence — the participle or the 
participle phrase taking the place of (1) an independent clause; 
as, "The fog settled down hiding everything from view"; (2) an 
adjective clause; as, u The only argument known to avail with the 
east wind is an overcoat" ; and (3) an adverb clause of (a) time; 
as, " Writing, Johnson w r as a Latin slave ; conversing, he was a 
Saxon prince"; (b) cause; as, "The air here, robbed of oxygen 
and loaded with carbonic gas, is unfit to breathe"; (c) evidence; 

A preposition prefixed to an intransitive verb or following it may make it tran- 
sitive. Stand or run are intransitive; but understand and overrun, in "I under- 
stand bow tbe enemy overran the territory," are transitive. Laugh and condole 
are intransitive ; but laugh at and condole with, in " He was laughed at and then 
condoled icah" are transitive. 

1 In "The singing birds wakened us," singing is a pure adjective, it simply 
modifies birds; in "The singing of the birds wakened us," singing is a pure noun. 
It is only the subject of wakened. 

2 Besides the participle in -ing, there are those in -en or -n ; those in -ed, -d, 
i or -t; and those without participial ending. 

This -ing is the O.E. ending -ende changed to -inde, -inge, -ing; so that the 
participle has become the same in form as the O.E. verbal noun. The nd of the 
O.E. ending is the nt of the Latin and of the Greek. 



154 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

as, "Living fearlessly he must have lived aright"; (d) purpose; 
as, "The suppliants came seeking audience with the king" ; (e) con- 
dition ; as, " Wishing to be well spoken of, we must not speak 
well of ourselves"; and (/) concession; as, "Nature, busied with 
cares, yet finds something for her children to do." 

3. To gather many things into the embrace of the sentence, yet 
leaving it light and swift of movement; as, "The crow sat with 
her little ones on a bough and gasped for breath, holding her wings 
half-spread, turning her head from side to side, and peering, for a 
sight of us, into the shade below." 

4. To diversify expression. The finite verb in the clause tends 
to conclude the thought and gto drop it ; the participle sustains it. 
A judicious blending of the two gives a pleasing variety. Their 
union in the illustrative sentence of 3 is an example. 

The participle with the noun in absolute phrases performs many 
of the functions just named and illustrated. 



THE INFINITIVE 

Another form of the verb, expressing action or being 
without asserting it, is the Infinitive — called so because it 
is not limited, as the finite forms are, to a subject control- 
ling its number and person. But the infinitive, like the 
participle, may have an assumed subject — a word denoting 
that to which the action or being expressed by this verb 
belongs. 

In English the infinitive is usually preceded by the 
preposition to, 1 and forms with it an Infinitive Phrase. The 



1 We do not regard to as part of the infinitive. Writers on language are generally 
agreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it 



THE VERB 155 

infinitives commonly without to are those that follow 
the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, 1 let, make, need, and see, and 
the auxiliary verbs can, may, must, shall, and will. 

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, is followed 
by the various complements, and has the syntax of a 
noun. 



performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning toward, for, etc. ; as, "I am 
inclined to believe " ; "I came to hear." When the infinitive phrase is used as a noun, 
the to expresses no relation, we grant ; it seems merely to introduce the phrase. But, 
when a word loses its proper function without taking on that of some other part of 
speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expressions, '■''For me to 
do this would be wrong " ; " Over the fence is out of danger," few grammarians would 
hesitate to call for and over prepositions, though they have no antecedent term of 
relation. 

We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as 
does an auxiliary, or as does the to in " He was spoken toy Those who call it a part 
of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the "preposition to " (which they 
have said is not a preposition) "placed before the infinitive," i.e. placed before that of 
which it forms a part ! The fact also that infinitives are used without to, strengthens 
our contention. 

In O.E., to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it had its 
proper function as a preposition; as, nominative etan, to 'eat'; dative to etanne; 
accusative etan. When the dative ending -ne was dropped, and the three forms were 
alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without 
expressing relation. 

This dative of the infinitive with to was used mainly to indicate purpose. When, 
after the dropping of the -ne ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the 
infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place for before the to. " And 
for to deck heaven's battlements." — Greene. "What went ye out for to see?" — 
Bible. " Shut the gates for to preserve the town." — King Henry VI, Part III. 

The -an ending of the O.E. infinitive, seen in et-dJO. above, has dropped off along 
with other O.E. inflections ; and we have now the simple form of the verb found in the 
stem — that seen in the first person indicative present, except in be. 

1 When such of these verbs as can be used in the passive voice are so used, the 
infinitive following them takes the to; as, "He icas heard to try, and was seen to 
leap.'"' 



156 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The infinitive phrase 1 may be used as an adjective modifier, 
as: — 

" There is a time to weep as well as a time to rejoice." 

The infinitive phrase may be used as an adverb modifier, 
as: — 

" And fools who came to scoff' 2 remained to pray." 

The infinitive phrase may be used as a noun — as (1) sub- 
ject; (2) attribute complement; (3) object complement; (4) 
objective complement; (5) explanatory modifier; (6) principal 
term in a prepositional phrase ; and (7) may be independent, 

as: — 

(1) and (2) "There are but few people whom to know intimately is 
to dislike thoroughly " ; (3) " The oriole loves to attach its nest to the 
lithe branches of the tallest elms" ; (4) " He made me (to) wait" ; 
(5) " It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work" ; (6) " Nothing 
was left to our fathers but to fight on to the end" ; and (7) " Robins 
are feathered Pecksniffs, to be sure." 

Definition. — The Infinitive is a form of the verb which 
names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it 
of anything. 

1 We are here speaking of the whole infinitive phrase and not of the verb alone 
in it. Indeed, in those phrases where the to has its full prepositional force, the verb 
performs the office of the principal word in a prepositional phrase — " Time to weep " = 
*' Time for tveeping " ; "Bread to sell" = "Bread for sale" ; "I went to see"="I 
went for seeing." 

2 The infinitive in the phrase expressing purpose is our substitute for the O.E. dative 
infinitive in -ne, which was preceded by to and called a Gerund. This infinitive of ours 
is sometimes called a gerundial infinitive to distinguish it from those infinitives to 
which the to was extended when the -ne of the O.E. dative was dropped. 



THE VERB 157 

THE NOUNAL VERB 

Another form of the verb does not assert. It is seen in 

"Next in rarity to catching a weasel asleep is seeing a partridge 
drum"; "The stretching one's self out in a common car means a 
curling one's self up like a cat " ; "John's having gone away was the 
signal for my return." 

In (1) its endings, in being (2) transitive or intransitive, 

(3) simple or compound, (4) active or passive, and in having 

(5) a dual nature — one part verbal — this form of the verb 

is like a participle; but in having a dual nature one part 

Inounal it is unlike a participle and like an infinitive. 

Diversity" of opinion concerning this form exists with 
jrespect to (1) some of its modifiers, and (2) its name. Some 
(allow, while others deny, that a 1 and the 1 or a noun in the 
] possessive 2 may modify it; and some call it (1) an injini- 
Hive; 3 some, (2) a gerund; 3 others, (3) a verbal noun; 3 and 

! 

1 We concede that the use of a and the to modify this form is hardly colloquial, and 

savors of the "old style," but we find such locutions too strongly intrenched in mod- 
ern usage to put them under ban. From abundant gleanings we select these, found in 
H. Taylor, M. Arnold, Buskin, and Lowell: "Kash were it and a tempting Provi- 
dence should I proceed" ; "Not a making -war on them, not a leaving them out" ; 
| The wandering about" ; " The doing away with the qualification." 

2 ~No one hesitates to use a pronoun in the possessive, as in " His being a politician 
harmed him " ; but some hesitate to use a noun in the possessive, as in " John's being 
a politician harmed him." Yet this -'s is often the "only mark to distinguish the 
nounal verb from the participle, and save the sentence from fatal ambiguity or sheer 
nonsense. "The man's being a liar is universally believed " is an illustration. 

3 It taxes credulity to believe that a simple O.E. Infinitive in -an — only one form of 
which followed a preposition, and that always to — has developed into compound forms 
active and passive, that follow almost any preposition, and are modified by a and the 
and by nouns and pronouns in the possessive. 



158 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

others still, (4) a participle. For reasons given below, we 
call it a Nounal Verb. 

Definition. — A Nounal Verb is a form of the verb partak- 
ing of the nature of a noun, and expressing action or being 
without asserting it. 



SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Verbs — Transitive and Intran- 
sitive, the Participle, the Infinitive, the Nounal Verb. 

A Gerund in O.E. is a simple form of the verb in the active voice — the dative 
case of the infinitive — used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by to. 
To call these disputed forms Gerunds is to stretch this term unwarrantably, making 
it cover words that sometimes (1) are highly compound ; sometimes (2) are in the 
passive ; sometimes follow (3) other prepositions than to, and sometimes (4) no prepo- 
sition ; sometimes are (5) subjects, and sometimes (6) objects ; sometimes are modified 
(7) by a and by the, and sometimes (8) by nouns and pronouns in the possessive ; and 
generally (9) do not indicate purpose at all. 

To call these words modernized forms of O.E. Verbal Nouns in -ung, -ing, en- 
counters the fact that such nouns were never compound and never had objects. These 
words are compound and have objects. 

It has been customary, and the custom still has followers, to call these words 
Participles — a term appropriately denoting verbal forms dual in nature. But different 
names for the verbal forms one of whose natures is adjectival, and for those one of 
whose natures is nounal, are demanded. It seems reasonable, therefore, to restrict 
the name Participle to those words with a verb and an adjective nature, and to seek 
another name for those with a verb and a noun nature. Nounal Verb is such a 
name. 

To call these forms in question Verbal Nouns is to classify them as nouns : to call 
them Nounal Verbs is to class them, as grammarians almost universally do, with 
verbs. Besides, the term Nounal Verb may help to distinguish between the true 
representatives of the old verbal nouns in -ung and the so-called gerunds or infini- 
tives in -ing. 



THE VERB 159 

Questions. — The two great parts of a sentence ? The information 
imparted in which part ? A verb, what ? Difference between transi- 
tive verbs and intransitive ? Definitions ? The object of a transitive 
verb may be either what or what ? Must a verb transitive in one connec- 
tion be so in another ? What may make an intransitive verb transitive ? 
What forms of the verb do not assert ? The participle, what ? Its end- 
ings, what ? The O.E. present participle ending, what ? The nd of this 
ending, what ? How do participles enable us to slur the less important 
acts expressed in the sentence ? What three kinds of clauses may 
participles take the place of ? What diverse functions of the adverb 
clause may the participle assume ? How may it aid in the movement 
of the sentence ? How affect the expression ? In what phrases may 
the participle with its noun do the same ? What is the infinitive ? 
Its assumed subject ? What preposition usually precedes it ? Reasons 
- for calling this part of speech a preposition ? After what verbs is 
this to before the infinitive omitted? But with what voice of 
such of these verbs as are transitive is the to used before the infini- 
tive ? The to with the infinitive forms what ? Show the development 
from O.E. of our to before the infinitive. In the stem of the 
first person indicative present of what English verb do we not 
find the simple form of the verb ? What three parts of speech may 
the infinitive phrase be used as ? What seven offices of the noun may 
the infinitive phrase assume ? What is a gerundial infinitive ? What 
is the nounal verb ? In what five particulars is it like a participle ? 
In what particulars is it unlike ? By what adjectives may it be modi- 
fied ? By nouns and pronouns in what case ? One reason for the 
noun's being in the possessive before the nounal verb. By what other 
names is the nounal verb called by some grammarians ? Why should 
it not be called an infinitive ? A gerund ? A verbal noun ? Why is 
it thought better not to call it a participle ? Reasons for calling it 
a nounal verb. 

Exercises. — In sentences of your own finding show how a verb 
transitive in one connection may be intransitive in another. How a 
preposition prefixed to an intransitive verb or following it may make 



160 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

it transitive. Give participles with their several endings and others 
without ending. In sentences of your own finding illustrate the 
several utilities of the participle in discourse. Give sentences where 
the to is omitted before the infinitive. Give sentences of your own 
finding, illustrating the seven noun uses of the infinitive phrase. Give 
a sentence showing the need of the -'s to distinguish the nounal verb 
from the participle. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE VERB— (Continued) 
MODIFICATIONS 

Vekbs have five Modifications — Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, 
and Person. 

Voice 

11 John struck Peter M ; " Peter was struck by John." 

Here the same thing is said in two ways. Struck in the 
first sentence shows that the subject names the actor; was 
struck in the second shows that the subject names the one 
acted upon. 

These uses of the verb constitute the modification called 
voice. Struck is in the active voice ; was struck is in the 
passive voice. The object complement of the verb in the 
active voice becomes the subject when the verb is changed to 
the passive; hence only those verbs with an object — trans- 
itive verbs — have voice. 

Definitions 

Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows 
whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon. 

H. SCH. GRAM. — 11 161 



162 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The Active 1 Voice shows that the subject names the actor. 
The Passive 1 Voice shows that the subject names the one 
acted upon. 

But this object need not be the object complement. The 
indirect, or dative, object may be made the subject of a verb 
in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained 
after the verb. 

Change from the Active Voice to the Passive. — There are 
two ways in which the verb in such a sentence as 

"They offered Caesar the crown," 

may be changed into the passive voice. We may (1) make 
the object complement crown the subject, and say 

" The crown was offered Caesar " ; 

or (2) make the indirect object Ccesar the subject, and say 

" Ccesar ivas offered the crown." 

Both are legitimate, though the second 2 is questioned. 



1 The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent ; the 
passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent; as, "Washington cap- 
tured Cornwallis " ; " Cornwallis was captured by Washington." The passive voice 
may b* used also when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not 
care to name him, though known; as, "Money is coined at the mints"; "During 
the night, the shore was strewn with wrecks." 

2 This seems to violate the analogies of language, but it is an English idiom estab- 
lished by the best of usage. Here are a few illustrations from those we have gleaned, 
along with some from Matzner's list — sentences from Shakespeare, Goldsmith, Cole- 
ridge, Hume, Macaulay, Fielding, Motley, Felton, and others : — 



THE VERB 163 

Crown in the second sentence is the object complement 1 of 
was offered — a verb in the passive voice. 

The Passive — How Formed. — Except in the participle, 
the English verb, unlike the Latin and the Greek but 
like the German, has not and never had synthetic passive 
forms. The passive of the verb is compounded of some 
form of the verb be 2 and a past participle of a transitive 
* verb — the first, the asserting word; the second, an attri- 
bute complement. 

" I was promised a book " ; " I am not left one friend " ; " He was given reason 
to regret it " ; " He was told that Congress had adjourned " ; " The wealthy refugees 
■' were positively denied admittance" ; "Had the Spartan been asked, '•What is 
the chief end of man t ' " " The merchant icaspaid thirty pounds " ; " I have been 
spared the trouble" ; "We were shown a room"; "You would be taught your 
duty " ; " He was forbidden access to the sacrifices, and was refused the. protection 
of law " ; "He was debarred all intercourse " ; " If I may be allowed a word." 

1 It is called an adverbial modifier, a retained object, a noun without grammatical 
construction. But the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is the same in 

, " They offered Caesar the crown " and " Caesar was offered the crown." If, in the first, 
crown is the object complement of the verb, why is it not in the second ? 

In O.E., the dative Coesare was placed first for emphasis; as, " Coesare (to Caesar) 
was offered the crown " ; and, when the dative ending -e dropped, Ccesar was taken 
as subject, and the whole sentence remodeled in thought. 

The usage of the Latin is instructive — " Fuerant hoc rogali." Hoc, ' this,' is the 
accusative of fuerant rogati, ' they had been asked.' 

2 In O.E., weorfian as well as wesan or beon, 'be,' was used to form the passive. 
The two verbs, vjeorfian and beon, had little distinction in meaning or use. 

This weorftan, 'become,' 'befall,' * betide,' 'be,' is seen in " Woe worth (be to) the 
day"; "And now worth (was) the mede (maid) y-maried" — the y in y-maried, 
as in the modern but obsolete yclad, yclept, ydrad, being the form to which the 
prefix ge of the O.E. participle reduced before being dropped. 

The abandonment of weorfian, as the asserting word in the passive, was accom- 
plished in spite of the analogy of the German, whose passive always has werden, the 
correlative of weorfian. It took place, Matzner and Professor Hadley think, through 
the " influence of the French principle of formation." 



164 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Peculiar Idiomatic Constructions. — English enjoys peculiar 
freedom in forming its passives. A transitive verb x which, 
in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and 
a prepositional phrase, may take, in the passive, the princi- 
pal word of the phrase for subject, and retain the complement 
and the preposition to complete its meaning. 

Forms Liable to be Mistaken. — An expression consisting of 
an asserting word followed by an adjective complement, 
or by a participle used adjectively, is easily mistaken 2 for a 
verb in the passive voice. 

The Passive expressing Continuing Action. — The past 
participle joined to the forms of be usually represents 
an action as complete. To indicate continuing action 
in the passive voice it early became customary to use the 

1 " The logical distinction was lost sight of" ; " The anarchy was put an end to " ; 
" Some of his characters have been found fault with." 

In analyzing the first sentence, for example, some would regard o/as an adverb relat- 
ing to was lost, and sight as a noun used adverbially to modify was lost ; some would 
treat sight as an object complement of was lost; and some would call was lost sight of 
a compound verb ; while others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not 
changed by a change of position, would analyze the expression as if arranged thus : 
" Sight of the logical distinction was lost." 

2 In "This coat is sometimes worn,'''' is worn is a verb in the passive voice ; in 
" This coat is badly worn," is worn is not a verb in the passive ; the incomplete pred- 
icate is is completed by worn used as an adjective attribute complement. 

The liability to mistake is perhaps greatest with verbs of motion, as in "The 
middle of August is come" ; "Thou art fled to brutish beasts " ; "Sir Eoger is 
gone out of the club "; " They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, were slunk. ." 

In O.E., as in German, the perfect active has two forms, one with have, the other 
with am for intransitives ; as, " He has a book bought." " He is to Eome gone." 

The test of the passive voice is, that what is named by the subject is represented 
as being acted upon, and that the verb is, or may be, followed by the preposition by 
before the name of the agent. 



THE VEBB 165 

verbal noun in -ung, -ing with the preposition on, M.E. in, 
spelled later a. This a was afterward suppressed. 

"The house is in building," u The house is a building," "The 
house is building," 

exhibit the three ways successively taken to indicate 
action as going on in the present passive. 

Now when the O.E. participle ending -ende had at last 
become -ing, the participle and the verbal noun, alike in 
form, were confounded, and is building, in 



"The house is building" 



was regarded as is and the present participle of build. 

But this combination — often ambiguous, as is seen later 
— is slowly yielding to a form consisting of being preceded 
1 by some other form of be and followed by the past participle 
of the verb used; as, is being built. 

The Origin of the Passive. — It is thought that the com- 
mon way of forming the passive in our family of languages 
grew out of a form originally reflexive. When, for 
example, one praises himself, then one is praised ; and it is 
thought that the passive form, 

" He is praised," 
could not have been used 1 till the reflexive, 

1 This view is strengthened by the fact that the Greek has a third voice, called the 
middle, to express reflexive action ; and that, in all but two tenses, the Greek passive 
and middle are similar. 



166 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

" He praises himself" 

had been domesticated. It seems but natural to make the 
agent " the source, or starting point, from which the action 
proceeds." 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Voice — Change from Active to 
Passive, Passive how Formed, Passive expressing Continuing Action, 
Origin of Passive. 

Questions. — What is the active voice ? The passive ? What, in 
the active voice, becomes subject in the passive ? Hence only what 
verbs have voice ? Definitions ? What besides object complement, 
in the active, may become subject in the passive ? Active voice pre- 
ferred when ? Passive when ? Show that the indirect object of the 
verb in the active voice may become subject in the passive voice, and 
the object complement in the active remain object complement in 
the passive. This object complement in the passive is called what by 
some ? The usage of the Latin, what ? How is the passive formed 
in English ? What verbs in O.E. are used as our be is in the passive ? 
Whence the y in yclept, etc. ? In spite of what analogy was weorfian 

The endings of the verb in the Greek middle are lengthened forms of the personal 
pronouns used in the active voice ; or they are double forms, in each of which the pro- 
noun is twice expressed — as object and as subject. 

The passive in Latin often has a reflexive meaning — doubtless a survival of the 
Greek middle. Most of the Deponent Verbs — passive in form, but not in meaning, as 
uto-r, ' I use ' — are reflexive, and correspond to the Greek verb in the middle. 

While admitting that the Scandinavian passive is the active plus the reflexive pro- 
noun -sik, Jespersen does not regard the -r of the Latin passive — in amo-T, amatu-i, 
etc., 'I am loved,' 'He is loved' — as the -s of the reflexive pronoun se, 'self, 1 
changed, by rhotacism, into -r. But Professor Hadley says, " It seems impossible to 
explain the Latin passive in any other way." 



THE VERB 167 

abandoned for be in the passive ? Instance some peculiar idiomatic 
constructions in the passive. What forms liable to be mistaken ? 
With what verbs is the liability greatest ? How guarded against ? 
The test of the passive voice? How was continuing action in the 
passive once indicated ? The preposition on or in reduced to what 
and then dropped ? The is and the word in -ing then taken for 
what ? This combination always unambiguous ? To what is it 
yielding ? The passive grew out of a form originally what ? What 
light does the Greek throw upon this point ? The deponent verbs in 
Latin ? The endings of the verb in the Greek middle voice are 
what? What is Jespersen's admission respecting the Scandinavian 
passive ? His view respecting the -r in the Latin amo-r, amatu-x — 
' 1 am loved,' ' He is loved ' ? 

Exercises. — Illustrate what is said of the frequent choice of the 
passive voice ; of the change from the active to the passive ; of the 
forms liable to be mistaken ; of the origin of the passive denoting 
continuing action ; of the origin of the passive. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE VERB — (Continued) 

MODE 

There are three ways in which action or being is 
asserted by the verb. If one says 

" John moves rapidly," 

the action is asserted as a fact not depending for its exist- 
ence npon one's thought concerning it. If he says 

" If John move rapidly, he will reach the station in time," 

the action is asserted as a mere thought, without sugges- 
tion that it is, or will become, an actual fact. If he says 

" John, move rapidly," 
I 
the action is asserted not as a fact but as a command or an 

exhortation which John is ordered or requested to convert 
into a fact. 

The manner in which action or being is asserted by the 
verb constitutes the modification called Mode. In the first 
quotation above, the verb is in the Indicative Mode; in the 
second, in the Subjunctive Mode ; in the third, in the Impera- 
tive Mode. 

168 



THE VERB 169 



Definitions 



Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes its man- 
ner of asserting action or being. 

The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact. 1 

The Subjunctive 2 Mode asserts the action or being as a mere 
thought or conception or supposition or wish. 

The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com- 
mand, an exhortation, or an entreaty. 

To these modes, a Potential has been added, in which the 
auxiliaries can, could, may, might, should, and would assert 
power, liberty, possibility, and necessity to do or to be. 

But, when I say 

"I could do it if I would," 

my ability is asserted as a thought whose translation into 
fact depends upon my willingness, which in the second 
clause is asserted as a mere conception — and each verb is 
clearly subjunctive. When I say 

(1) "I can do it," (2) "I may do it," (3) "I should do it," 



1 In " Are you going ? " or " You are going ? " a fact is referred to the hearer for his 
admission or denial. In " Who did it ? " the fact that some person did it is asserted, 
and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will thus be seen that the Indic- 
ative Mode may be used in asking a question. 

2 Called subjunctive, because commonly used in subjoined, or dependent, clauses — 
introduced by if, lest, that, though, etc. The name is misleading. The subjunctive 
is not always in a subjoined clause ; and not every subjoined clause contains a subjunc- 
tive. Conceptual, Mason thinks, would be a better name. 



1T0 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

not the doing, but my (1) ability, (2) liberty, (3) obligation 
to do, are asserted as facts — and each verb seems to be 
indicative. 1 



1 In his English Grammar, Bain puts it thus : — 

" Such forms as ' I may see,' I can see,' have sometimes been considered as a 
variety of mood, to which the name ' Potential ' is given. But there is no trace of any 
inflection corresponding to this meaning, as we find with the subjunctive. Moreover, 
such a mood would have itself to be subdivided into indicative and subjunctive forms : 
* 1 may go,' 'if I may go.' And further, we might proceed to constitute other moods 
on the same analogy, as, for example, an obligatory mood — ' I must go,' or ' I ought 
to go ' ; a mood of resolution — ' I will go, you shall go ' ; a mood of gratification — ' I 
am delighted to go ' ; of depression — ' I am grieved to go.' " 

It is necessary to say here that in an advanced work an author may properly dis- 
card a terminology permissible to him, and used, in a work more elementary. 

He maj% for instance, justify his use of a potential mode in an earlier treatise by 
urging (1) that to assert power, etc., to do is not to assert doing either as a fact or as a 
conception ; (2) that the mode for asserting power (potenlia) is not improperly poten- 
tial ; (3) that one can do good work with good tools, whatever their names ; (4) that to 
call may, can, etc., potential, is the only disposition of them level to the youth's under- 
standing ; (5) that for the supreme purpose of use the pupil need master such subjunc- 
tive forms only as are seen in " If I 6 e," " If I were,' 1 '' " If he teach " ; (6) that, if the 
potential be discarded, to settle when could, should, etc., assert facts and are indicative, 
and when they assert conceptions and are subjunctive, is often difficult, if not impos- 
sible ; and (7) that the pupil is disheartened by this needlessly created difficulty. 

But such considerations, justifying such a course in an earlier work, the author may 
properly brush aside when preparing a work more advanced — more historical and 
scientific. His purpose now is not what it was then ; he is writing for pupils able to 
understand and stand the whole truth. The science, too, between whiles has pro- 
gressed ; authorities have changed ; lights once followed may now mislead ; if not a 
Bourbon, his vision is keener and his horizon broader ; he must base his present work 
upon principles then unknown, or purposely ignored if known. 

And of principles that underlie modes there seems to be none more fundamental 
and philosophical than this : For asserting facts, the indicative is used ; for assert- 
ing mere conceptions, the subjunctive. 

These are the reasons for our use of the Potential in Graded Lessons and 
Higher Lessons, and for our disuse of it in this treatise. We may summarize 
thus: Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis — rendering tempora freely. 



THE VERB 171 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

Subjunctive Forms. — The subjunctive mode has no inflec- 
tional endings. It omits the indicative -s from its third 
person singular active present ; it uses be in place of am, art, 
is, and are; were in place of teas; and wert in place of wast. 

The Subjunctive in O.E. — In O.E., the subjunctive is 
used in simple sentences, and in the principal clauses of 
complex sentences, to express (1) wish, (2) command, and 
(3) direct questions; in (4) explanatory noun clauses, and 
(5) object noun clauses containing an indirect question or 
quotation ; in (6) indefinite adjective clauses ; and in adverb 
clauses (7) of time, (8) place, (9) manner, (10) condition, 
(11) concession, (12) purpose, and (13) result — as in the 
sentences below. 1 

The Decline of the Subjunctive. — A noteworthy point 
respecting the subjunctive mode in English is its decline. 



1 "Wa la ! dhte ic geweald," " Oh 1 that I had the power" ; (2) and (6) "Gehyre, 
se fte earan hcebbe" " Bear, he who has ears " ; (3) and (12) " Hwaet do ic ftaet ic ece 
lif hcebbe?" "What may I do that I may have eternal life?" (4) " Swylce ftaet is 
gesewen "gsethe where gewiss," " It also is seen that he was certain " ; (5) " Geseoh $u, 
cyning, hwilce fteos lar sle" " Thou sawest, O King, what kind of doctrine this is" and 
(5) " Cwaedon hie ^aet him nasnig ma?g leofra ncere" " They said that no kinsman was 
dearer to them " ; (7) "^Er $iem fte Rome burg getimbred w<~re" " Before the City of 
Rome was built"; (8) ** Hafa bletsunge JS&ir ftu. fere," "Have a blessing wherever 
thou mayest go"; (9) "Do swa fte ^ynce," "Do as seems best to thee" ; (10) and 
(13) " Gif man sle dumb oftfte deaf geboren ftaet he ne moege his synna geandettan" 
" If one is born dumb or deaf so that he can not confess his sins "; and (11) " Ne forseah 
Crist his geongan cempan $eah he llchamlice on heora siege andweard nTZre" " Christ 
did not despise his young warriors, though he was not present in body at their 
slaughter." 



172 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The subjunctive be, were, and wert are disappearing, as is 
the form without -s in the third singular present active. 

This does not mean that the differences between the in- 
dicative and the subjunctive are vanishing, but that we 
are caring less than formerly for those subtile distinctions 
which the subjunctive alone expresses, and are substituting 
assertions of fact for assertions of what is merely conceived. 

1. In (2) of the preceding foot-note, O.E. may use the subjunctive 
or the imperative ; Mn.E. uses the imperative alone. 

2. In (3), (4), (6), and (9), O.E. may use the indicative or the 
subjunctive ; Mn.E. uses the indicative alone. 

3. In (1) and (11), O.E. uses the subjunctive alone; Mn.E. uses 
the subjunctive only in part. 

And elsewhere along the line the subjunctive is retreating. 

The Uses of the Subjunctive in Modern English. — The sub- 
junctive is still used 

1. In Simple Sentences expressing a wish (1) possible of 
realization, or (2) impossible. It may be used 

2. In the Principal Clause of a complex sentence whose 
dependent clause is (3) a condition, (4) a concession, or (5) an 
explanatory noun clause. It may be used 

3. In a Noun Clause (6) explanatory, or consisting of an 
indirect question used (7) as subject, or (8) as object comple- 
ment. It may be used 

4. In an Adverb Clause (9) of time, (10) of concession, (11) 
of purpose, (12) of condition of whose fulfillment the speaker 
is certain, (13) of condition of whose non-fulfillment the 



THE VEBB 173 

speaker is certain, (14) of condition of whose fulfillment or 
non-fulfillment the speaker is uncertain, and (15) generally, 
in asserting anything hypothetically, as a mere supposition 
or conception, as : — 

(1) "Thy kingdom come," "God be with you" = ' good-bye' ; 
(2) "Oh ! that I were President'' ; (3) and (13) "I would not go if 
I were you" ; (4) and (10) u He would not have risen though an 
angel had called him" ; (5) and (6) "It were better for him that a 
millstone were hanged about his neck"; (7) "Whether it were a 
dream or a reality was questioned" ; (8) " I know not whether there 
be any such " ; (9) "I will stay here till she return " ; (10) " Though 
the weather grow dark, we'll trim our broad sail as before" ; (11) 
"Take care lest your speech betray you"; (12) "If there be such a 
thing as right, it will finally prevail" ; (13) and (3) " If he were here, 
you would not say that" ; (14) "If it rain to-morrow, the roads will 
be muddy " ; (15) " The ship leaps madly, as it were, from billow to 
billow." 

Remarks. — 1. In the kinds of clauses named and numbered 
above, the subjunctive may still be employed. But in most of them 
the indicative is now ordinarily used. It does not, however, discharge 
the office of the subjunctive, but gives instead an unmistakable color 
of fact to the assertion. 

We may, for instance, substitute in (7), "Whether it was" ; in 
(8), " Whether there are" ; in (9), "Till she returns"; in (10), 
"Though the weather grows"; in (12), "If there is" ; and in (14), 
"If it rains." Bat in these substitutes the nature of the original 
assertions is changed. 

2. Sentences (8), (9), (10), (12), and (14), whose subordinate 
clauses are in the subjunctive, have their principal clauses in the 
indicative ; sentences (3), (4), (6), and (13), whose subordinate 
clauses are in the subjunctive, have their principal clauses also in 
the subjunctive. The mode of the principal clause is not then deter- 



174 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

mined by that of the subordinate, but, as is that of the subordinate 
itself, by the character of the assertion to be made. 

3. "May thy kingdom come" = u Thy kingdom come"; "Oh! 
that I might be" = u Oh\ that I were"; " It would be better " = 
"It were better"; "Though the weather should grow dark" — 
"Though the weather grow dark"; "If he could 6e" = "If he 
were" ; "If it should rain" = " If it ram." 

If the second members 1 of these equations are subjunctive, as all 
allow, it would seem that the first must be. 

4. In sentences with a condition the grand distinction between 
the indicative and the subjunctive is brilliantly illustrated. In (12) 
and (13) above, the speaker's certainty respecting the condition 
does not lead him to use the indicative, and in, "If it is cloudy to- 
night, there will be no rain," the speaker's uncertainty respecting 
the condition 2 does not lead him to use the subjunctive. His state 
of mind regarding the fulfillment of the condition has nothing to 
do in determining the mode he uses in the condition. If he 
chooses to leave the condition open, putting it neither (1) as a fact, 
though he knows it is already fulfilled or will be, nor (2) as contrary 
to fact, though he knows it is not fulfilled or will not be, he uses 



1 In " Should it rain, the roads will be muddy," rain, of the first clause, is an 
infinitive ; and so is be, of the second. But however thoroughly we may, as here, 
analyze periphrastic verb phrases, and determine the function of auxiliary, infinitive, 
or participle in them, we must remember that the verb phrase as a whole has an 
office ; that, of this phrase, mode is as predicable as voice or tense or any other 
modification ; and that one mode is as predicable as another. 

2 The subjunctive is more frequent in conditional clauses than elsewhere ; yet, 
as we see above, it is not always used in them. 

Frequently the condition is (1) entirely suppressed, or (2) only suggested by 
a single word or a phrase; as, (1) "He would not hesitate to say that" (if he 
were asked being suppressed); "Then, or in that case (='if that were so'), I 
would spread my branches far around." 

The if may be omitted from condition clauses without affecting the mode ; as, 
"Were this so " = " If this were so"; "Had I known it" — "If I had known 
it " ; " Should we fail" = " If we should fail." 



THE VERB 175 

the subjunctive. If, though uncertain of its fulfillment or non- 
fulfillment, he chooses to speak of it as a fact, he uses the 
indicative. 

5. But for (1) the use of be, were, and ivert in place of other 
forms of the substantive verb, and (2) the absence of ending in 
the present third singular of other verbs, the subjunctive has 
nothing outward to distinguish it from the indicative. Knowing, 
then, that the subjunctive is waning, we doubtless often call forms 
indicative that are really subjunctive. 

THE IMPEKATIVE MODE 

The Person, Number, and Tense of the Imperative. — A 

'Command or an entreaty is addressed to one or to more, 
and therefore the imperative is always in the second per- 
son, 1 singular or plural; and, though the act which it 
enjoins can be performed only in time succeeding the 
command, the tense used is the present. 

The indicative may take the place of the imperative, 
as in 

"Thou shalt not kill"; "You shall go" ; "You must leave" ; 
11 Will you not go instantly?" 



1 From such forms as, "Let us sing,''' "Let them talk,'''' some grammarians make a 
first and a third person imperative. But us is not the subject of the verb phrase 
let-sing, and let is not of the first person. Us is the object complement of let, and 
the infinitive sing is the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject. 

Some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as, 
"Now tread we a measure," "Perish the thought. ,, But the verbs here are in 
the subjunctive, though they simulate an imperative by using its order of words and 
its vocal tone. 

The subject — you or thou — is, usually omitted with the imperative. 



176 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Mode — the three Kinds. The 
Subjunctive — in O.E. and in Mn.E. Remarks on. The Imperative. 

Questions. — Mode, what ? The three modes, what ? Subjunctive, 
why called so ? A misnomer ? The so-called potential, needed ? The 
underlying principle of the indicative, what? Of the subjunctive, 
what ? Has the subjunctive any inflectional ending ? What three 
forms of the substantive verb does it use ? And for what indicative 
forms? In what thirteen ways is the subjunctive used in O.E. ? In 
what ones of these ways may the imperative or the indicative be used 
in Mn.E.? Give the uses of the subjunctive in Mn.E. What mode is 
ordinarily employed in the kinds of clauses where the subjunctive might 
be used ? Does the substituted indicative discharge the exact office of 
the subjunctive ? What color does it give to the assertion ? Does the 
mode in either the principal or the subordinate clause determine that 
in the other clause ? What determines the mode in both ? What 
sentences brilliantly illustrate the distinction in the use of the two 
modes ? Is the subjunctive always used in conditions ? When only ? 
Is the condition ever entirely suppressed ? By what may it be only 
suggested ? Is the if always used in conditions ? What only that is 
outward distinguishes the subjunctive ? What mistake are we liable 
therefore to make ? In what person is the imperative always used ? 
Is the subject of the imperative usually expressed? A wish is ex- 
pressed in what mode? A sentence beginning with let is in what 
mode ? 

Exercises. — In sentences of your own coinage or finding exhibit all 
the uses of the subjunctive in Mn.E. See in how many of these thu 
indicative may be substituted, and with what change in the nature of 
the assertion. Find sentences in which the. condition is entirely sup- 
pressed ; in which it is only suggested ; in which the if is omitted from 
the condition ; in which the indicative commands. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE VERB— (Continued) 

TENSE 

t 

The Time of the Verb. — The action or being expressed by 

' the verb must be asserted as occurring in time— time pres- 
ent, time past, or time future. 

J * But, to express the time precisely, we have to assert of 
some things (1) their occurrence within a period of time 

" now ending ; (2) their occurrence before some point of time 

', already past ; or (3) their occurrence before some point of 

■ time yet future. 

Tense — in its Essential Office of Time. — The modification 
imposed upon the verb by the time in which the verb repre- 
sents the action or being as occurring is called Tense. 

No modification of the verb is more significant ; in Ger- 

1 man the verb is even named Zeitwort, 6 time-word.' 

Names of the Tenses. — There are in English six tenses — 

] (1) the Present, (2) the Past, (3) the Future, (4) the Present 
Perfect, (5) the Past Perfect, and (6) the Future Perfect — 

! illustrated thus : — 



(1) "He walks" ; (2) "He walked"; (3) "He will walk"; (4) 
"He has walked"; (5) 4k He had walked"; (6) "He will have 
walked. ' ' 

H. SCH. GRAM. 12 177 



178 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The present, the past, and the future are simple tenses; 
the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect 
are compound tenses, each marking two phases of time — 
that of time anterior, or preceding, along with that respec- 
tively of time present, time past, time future. 

Tense — in its Incidental Offices. — The compound tenses, il- 
lustrated in 

" He has walked" ; " He had walked" ; " He will have walked," 

assert the action as complete respectively in time present, 
past, and future. 

The simple tenses, illustrated in 

" He is walking " ; "He was walking " / " He will be walking" ; 

and the compound tenses, illustrated in 

u He has been walking " ; " He had been walking " ; " He will have 
been walking " 

assert the act as incomplete, continuing, respectively in time 
present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and 
future perfect. 

The simple tenses, illustrated in 

" He walks " ; " He walked " ; " He will walk," 

assert the act neither as complete nor as incomplete ; but, 
with reference to completion, as neutral, or indefinite. 1 

1 Professor Sweet speaks of another tense, illustrated in " I knew how it would 
turn out." The action is here represented as future with respect to the time expressed 



THE VERB 179 

Definitions 

Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the 
time of the action or being. 

The Present Tense expresses action or being as present. 

The Past Tense expresses action or being as past. 

The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come. 

The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as ended 
at the present time. 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as ended at 
! some past time. 

The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be 
ended at some future time. 

The participle, the infinitive, and the nounal verb — forms 
| that do not assert — also have this modification of tense, 
I though they are not used in all tenses. 

The participle is used in the present, past, and past perfect 

tenses, as in 

u Hearing a voice, he rose " ; " The voice heard was an enemy's " ; 
" Having heard it, he fled." 

by knew; but not future measuring from the present — as in "I know how it will 
turn out." He calls this tense future preterit. 

It is manifest that the completeness, the incompleteness, and the indefiniteness 
of an act are not time distinctions. It happens that in one form of the compound 
tenses the action or being is represented as complete ; and in the other, as continuous. 
But these tenses, as tenses, mark the time within which the action or being occurs. 
The same may be said of the incompleteness and of the indefiniteness of the action 
asserted by the simple tenses — illustrated above. 



180 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

Definitions 

The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing 
at the time indicated by the predicate. 

The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or ended 
at the time indicated by the predicate. 

The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as ended 
at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. 

The infinitive is used in the present and in the present per- 
fect, as : — 

"(To) ride is easier than (to) walk " ; " He is said (to) have walked 
a mile." 

The nounal verb is used (1) in the present and the past 
perf ect, as : — 

(1) "Doing good is the surest way of getting good"; (2) "I 
remember his being appointed consul," u Brown's having been made 
chairman prevented a quarrel." 

Uses of the Tenses 

The tenses are fluid in the expression of time — denoting 
(1) actions or states rigidly restricted in time to that which 
these tenses ordinarily denote, and (2) actions or states not 
thus restricted. 

They express incidental phases of the action or being not 
included in its time. 



THE VERB 181 

The Present Tense. — The present tense expresses an 
action (1) as happening l in present time ; (2) as continuing 
in present time ; (3) as frequently repeated in present time ; 
and (4) as habitual in present time. It expresses (5) what 
will take place in future time ; 2 and (6) what is true at all 
times. It is nsed to picture vividly (7) what happened 3 in 
past time ; and (8) what one imagines will happen in future 
time, as : — 

(1) "It snoivs"; (2) " He lives with his mother"; (3) "He 
writes home daily " ; (4) " My father goes to bed at nine " ; (5) "I 
leave to-morrow and return on Monday " ; (6) " The sun rises in the 
east and sets in the west" ; (7) " The fifth of September, 1774, 
daivns, the delegates to the first Continental Congress assemble, they 
march along the street, and reach the threshold of this hall"; 
(8) "A field of the dead rashes red on my sight, and the clans of 
Culloden are scattered in flight." 

The Past Tense. — The past tense expresses past actions 
or states (1) as momentary in duration ; and (2) as continu- 
ous, or customary. It expresses what one imagines might 
take place (3) in present time, and (4) in future time, as : — 

1 Instead of the indefinite form of the present in (1) and (2), the continuing 
form is frequent, as in "It is snowing," "He is Jiving with his mother." In 
questions, we employ the continuing form or use the auxiliary do, as in " Is it 
snowing ? " " Does it, or does it not, snow ? " "Is he living ? " " Does he, or does he 
not, live with his mother ? " 

2 The present of be and an infinitive, with or without going, about, etc., are fre- 
quently used in expressing what will occur in the future, as in "He is going to 
speak "; " He is about to speak "; " He is to speak." 

3 This is called the historical present. 



182 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

(1) " He paused, shook his head, started on, stopped, snuffed the 
candle, and shook his head again "•; (2) " He hoarded and saved and 
pinched and shaved, and the more he had the more he craved" ; 
(3) " PFere he here, he would enjoy this" ; (4) " If I should go, you 
would miss me." 

The Future Tense. — The future tense expresses an action 
or state (1) in the unlimited future; (2) in the limited future; 

(3) as habitual in the future, as : — 

(1) "I shall see you there"; (2) "I shall see you before you 
go" ; (3) "An intelligent people will be a free people." 

The Present Perfect Tense. — The present perfect ex- 
presses an action as taking place (1) recently but within 
the period of time now ending; (2) long ago but within 
the period now ending; (3) frequently in the period now 
ending; (4) continuing in the period now ending; and to 
take place (5) in future time, as : — 

(1) U I have eaten my dinner"; (2) "Christ has taught us our 
duty to our fellows"; (3) "I have slept soundly every night " ; 

(4) u He has been principal of the school for years " ; (5) " When I 
have read the book, you may have it." 

The Past Perfect Tense. — The past perfect expresses 
(1) action or being as completed at some point in past time ; 
and (2) in a condition clause it may express simple past 
time, as : — 

(1) "I had recited when you entered" j (2) "Had I known it, I 
should have called." 



I 



THE VERB 183 

The Future Perfect has only the function given it in the 
definition. 

Tense Signs in English. — In the past tense, indefinite 
active, we have what we may call a tense sign, or ending, — 
the -ed — seen in the preterit walk-ed. Not all verbs have 
it, however ; some change their stem vowel to indicate past 
time, as drive to drove. The participles ending -ing, -en, 
and -ed, seen in driv-ing, driv-en, and liv-ed., also are indica- 
tive of time. 

How the Tenses are formed. — Speaking generally, the 
English verb forms its compound tenses by the aid of 
auxiliary verbs. These auxiliaries are be, 1 can, do, have, 
may, must, shall, and will in their various forms. 

Definition. — Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the 
conjugation of other verbs. 

* THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES 

1. In Clauses. — The tenses of dependent clauses are in- 
fluenced, some say determined, by those in the principal 
clauses. The law expressing the sequence is this : A 
present or a future tense in the principal clanse requires a 
present or a future in the dependent; a past tense in the 
principal, a past in the dependent, as : — 



1 These verbs aid in forming the tenses of other verbs, and so are auxiliary. As 
to their present syntax in the verb phrases they help to make, it seems idle to 
speculate — " worse than useless," Wrightson says. 



184 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

" He writes that he is well or soon shall be" ; "I will go if I shall 
then fce alive and am allowed to go" ; He enlisted because he was 
forced to do so." 

To this rule there are two accepted limitations — (1) 
where the dependent clause expresses a universal truth, 1 
and (2) where it contains a direct quotation, as : — 

(1) " He died in the faith that God is love " ; " Who says m or said, 
4 1 am, was, and ever shall be a Whig ' f " 

But the law, thus restricted, needs further limitations to 
account for the sequence in such sentences as these : — 

(1) " I hurt myself so badly that I am still lame and shall always 
be" ; (2) "He is unable to walk because he was born a cripple" ; 

(3) " Though we had been enemies before, yet we are friends now " ; 

(4) "I wish to see the man who would venture to say that" ; (5) 
" The duty is so clear that all should heed it" ; (6) "If wars were 
bloody then, what are they now?" (7) "If wars are cruel now, 
what were they then?" (8) "I learned, or had learned, before 
you told me, where he lives " ; (9) "No one that served under Wash- 
ington is now living" ; (10) " Many a year has passed since I saw 
him" ; (11) "It is hardly credible that with his pen, Scott paid off 
the firm's debt of $600,000"; (12) "It rained last night, for the 
ground is wet this morning." 

In the order of time, agencies of any kind naturally 
precede; consequences of any kind follow, and those of 
which men ordinarily speak follow immediately or soon. 

1 The tense in such a clause is usually present, as in the illustration. But, if the 
speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the proposition, he may convert the 
proposition into an indirect quotation in the past tense; as, "He said that virtue 
was its own reward." 



THE VEBB 185 

If, then, in the principal clause we speak of an effect or a 
result as occurring in past time, in the dependent clause we 
naturally speak of the cause or condition of it as occurring 
in time preceding — that is, in past time also. 

Limiting himself to a narrow time interval between the 
actions asserted in the two clauses, the speaker conforms to 
the law for the sequence of tenses — both verbs are in the 
same time. 

But he may wish (1) to extend the time interval, and 
regard the consequences of preceding agencies as con- 
tinuing down to the moment in which he is speaking or 
even beyond it; or he may w4sh (2) to disregard the 
natural order of events, and, in the principal clause, speak 
of something whose condition or reason or ground of infer- 
ence or of existence is, in the dependent clause, asserted 
in the present or the future tense. 

In each of these cases, 1 the speaker transgresses the law — 
in (1) by using a present or a future tense in the principal 
clause and a past tense in the dependent ; in (2) by using a 
past tense in the principal clause, and a present or a future 
in the dependent. 

2. In the Infinitive. — The present infinitive expresses an 
act as (1) present, or (2) future — and the present perfect ex- 

1 These added limitations of the law cover its infractions illustrated in the 
numbered sentences above. 

Those sentences containing would and should are perhaps only seeming infrac- 
tions ; since, as Ave point out, in foot-note, p. 199, would and should, though 
preterit in form, often have nothing of past time in them. 



186 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

presses it as (3) finished — at the time indicated by the priib 
cipal verb, as : — 

" I am glad (1) to meet you, or (3) to have met you" ; "We hoped 
(2) to see you there" ; "He would not have dared (2) to do that" • 
" She meant or intended or expected (2) to go" (not to have gone 1 ). 

3. In the Participle and the Nounal Verb. — The present 
participle expresses an act synchronous with that of the verb 
whose subject or object it modifies, as: — 

" Seeing the dog, or being seen by him, the boy runs, ran, will 
run," etc. 

The past participle, unchanged in form, expresses an act 

(1) continuous and so synchronous, with that of the verb ; or 

(2) complete and hence preceding that of the verb, as : — 

(1) " Hated by every one, he, this morning, leaves, left, will leave, 
has left," etc. ; (2) " Shot by a sportsman, the duck is being eaten, 
was eaten, will be eaten," etc. 



1 " I ought to have gone " is exceptional. Ought has no past tense, and the present 
perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time. 

On the use of the present perfect infinitive to express future action, the Standard 
Dictionary says, "The doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of 
have with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future 
act was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought of. At- 
tention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense forma- 
tion and connection, is especially important and imperative. If one says, ' I meant to 
have visited Paris and to have returned to London before my father arrived from 
America,' the past [present perfect] infinitive ... is necessary for the expression of 
the completion of the acts purposed. ' I meant to visit Paris and to return to London 
before my father arrived from America,' may convey suggestively the thought in- 
tended but does not express it," 



THE VERB 187 

The past perfect participle expresses the act as preceding 
that of the verb, as : — 

u Having see?i or having been seeing the dog, or having been seen by 
him, the boy runs, ran, will run, 1 ' etc. 

Between the present and the past perfect of the nounal 
j verb, usage makes little distinction. It allows us to say 

C u After telling him, I came home" ; or "After having told him, I 
came home." 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Tense, Tenses — Essential and 
Incidental Offices, Various Uses, Sequence with Indicative and Sub- 
junctive Clauses, with Infinitives, Participles, and Nounal Verbs. 

Questions. — The action or being expressed by the verb must be 
in one or other of what three great divisions of time ? What necessity 
for a subdivision of these three in expressing time more precisely ? 
Tense, what ? Names of tenses ? The simple tenses ? The com- 
_ pound ? These mark each what two phases of time ? The incidental 
offices of tenses denoted by complete, continuing, and indefinite? Are 
these time distinctions ? What seventh tense does Professor Sweet 
add ? Definitions. In what tenses is the infinitive used ? The par- 
ticiple ? The nounal verb ? Give the various uses of the several 
' tenses. The continuing form in the present used instead of what ? 
The auxiliary do instead of what ? The historical present, what ? 
I What are the tense signs in English ? Compound tenses formed 
\ how ? Definition of auxiliary verbs ? Name these. The law for 
' sequence of tenses ? Two accepted limitations ? As thus limited, why 
still too sweeping ? What limitations added ? Ground for them ? 
' With respect to the time of the principal verb, the present infinitive 



188 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

expresses the act in what time ? The present perfect, how ? With 
reference to the principal verb, the present participle represents an 
act how? The past participle, in what two ways? The past per- 
fect participle, how ? What is said of the two tenses of the nounal 
verb ? The remark made in the Standard Dictionary extends what ? 
Exercises. — Give sentences of your own containing simple and 
compound tenses that illustrate incomplete, or continuing, action. 
Give sentences of your own that contain compound tenses expressing 
complete action. That contain simple tenses expressing indefinite 
action. Give sentences of your own that illustrate the infinitive, the 
participle, and the nounal verb in their several tenses. Give sentences 
that illustrate the fluid nature of the several tenses ; that require 
added limitations to the law for the sequence of tenses in clauses; 
that illustrate the tenses of infinitives and participles with reference 
to that of the principal verb. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE VERB — (Continued) 
NUMBER AND PERSON 

Definition. — The Number and Person of a verb are those 
modifications that show its agreement with the number and 
person of its subject. 

Rule. — A Verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person. 

In the common style, most verbs have but the one dis- 
tinguishing number and person ending -s, 1 found in the 
third singular present of the indicative — beats, leads. 

In the solemn style, the second person singular has the 
ending -est, -st, or -t, as in walk-est, 7ia-st, wil-t; and the 
third has -eth, or -th, as in look-eth and clo-th. 

The rule is almost invariable as respects number when 
there is but one subject. If this is plural, the verb is 
plural ; 2 if this is singular, the verb is singular. 

1 See p. 231, for the ending -es, as in vex-es,jli-es, etc. 

Need and dare, when followed by an infinitive without to, are generally used 
instead of need-s and dare-s ; as " He need not go " ; " He dare not go." 

2 Plural nouns naming things taken as one whole take a verb in the singular : as, 
" Ten miles is a long walk " ; " Six months is what ? " 

A seeming exception, and the source of many mistakes, is found with nouns 
plural in form, but singular as used ; as, "His Lives of the Poets is (not are) John- 

189 



190 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

But some cases where there are two or more singular 
nominatives require special notice. In general we may- 
say that 

Two or more singular nominatives, connected by and, 
require the verb to be plural. 

Exceptions to this rule occur (1) when the connected sub- 
jects name the same thing; (2) when the second subject is 
a synonym of the first and is added to emphasize it ; (3) 
when the second is closely allied in meaning with the first; 
(4) when the subjects form a climax; (5) when the subjects 
follow the verb, and emphasis is gained by making the verb 
agree with the nearest ; (6) when an attribute noun or pro- 
noun precedes the verb and attracts the verb to agreement 
with it; and (7) when two or more subjects name two or 
more things taken as one whole, as : — 

(1) "My old friend and patron was there" ; (2) "The head and 
front of my offence is this" ; (3) "Anything and everything suggests 
itself to him " ; (4) " His fortune, name, liberty, and very life was at 
stake " ; (5) " His was the plan, the execution, and the success of the 
attack" ; (6) " What is your name and station?" and (7) "Bread , 
and butter is nutritious." 

son's best work " ; " Mathematics is (not are) an invigorating study " ; " The United 
States is (not are) respected abroad." News, measles, etc. are other nouns often 
misused as plurals. 

Another source of mistakes in the number of the verb is a noun in the plural or 
two nouns in the singular, found in a prepositional phrase preceding the verb ; as, 
"The captain, besides the passengers, was (not were) saved " ; "The son, in addition 
to the daughter and mother, is (not are) sick" ; "The lieutenant, with many of his 
soldiers, was (not were) wounded." 

The mistake is made most frequently when with is used. 



THE VERB 191 

Some seeming 1 exceptions to the rule occur where there 
are obvious ellipses of the verb, as (1) when the second 
subject is used for emphasis; (2) when the subjects are 
connected by as ivell as, 'and'; (3) when the subjects 
are individualized by eacJi, every, many a, no, or not; and 
(4) when all the subjects follow the verb, as : — 

(1) " All this, and much besides, appears to forbid it " ; (2) " Time, 
as well as thought, was needed" ; (3) " Each boy and each girl was 
questioned," '•''Every man and woman was lost," " Many a maid and 
her lover laments that ride," "No people and no tribe ever lacks that," 
" Not my head and not my heart consents " ; (4) " There was running 
and leaping and shouting that day." 

When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other 
negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative, as : — 

"Stories, and not study, were preferred"; "Hunting, and not 
fishing and sailing, was his favorite sport." 

1 Possibly some of these seeming- exceptions are only duplicates of the real ones 
illustrated above. Possibly, too, both groups of illustrations do not exhibit all the 
authorized departures, or apparent departures, from the rule. 

In the third volume of the Journal of Philology, Fitzgerald Hall has collected 
scores of sentences that really or apparently violate the rule. Some of them, not 
already accounted for, perhaps, may be, thus : " But in fearful truth the presence and 
the power of him is here " (a common modifying phrase unifies the two subjects) ; 
11 Great natural energy and generosity has been manifested" (common modifying 
adjectives unify the two subjects); "There has been a simplicity and humility in 
his letters" (failure to repeat, before humility, the distinguishing a unifies the two 
subjects); "Already there appears a poverty of conception, a coarseness and 
vulgarity in all the proceedings " (euphony unconsciously influences the writer to add 
-s — sounded as z — to appear, before the a). 

The rule we have been considering has certainly received a loose interpretation 
from modern writers, and from earlier ones a looser still. 



192 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

When two or more subjects are connected by or or nor, 
the verb agrees in number with but one, and that the 
nearest, as : — 

" Neither the pupils 1 nor the teacher 1 was satisfied"; "Either 
he alone or they all are wrong." 

A collective noun, singular 2 in form, has its verb (1) 
in the singular when the collection is taken as a whole; 
(2) in the plural when the individuals composing the col- 
lection are thought of, as : — 

(1) u The jury was composed of twelve farmers," "The number 
present was not reported"; (2) "The jury were not agreed," "A 
number are determined to go." 

When one of two or more subjects connected by and 
is of the first person, the verb is in the first person; 
when one is of the second person and none is of the 
first, the verb is in the second, as : — 

u He and I 3 shall (not will) suffer for this"; " How dost thou 
and thy master agree ? " 

1 When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural generally stands next to 
the verb, however. 

2 Sometimes a collective noun is preceded by a verb in the singular and followed by 
one in the plural ; as, " Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound " ; " There is 
a generation that are pure in their own eyes." 

We may say, "Three times four is twelve," because the expression = " Four 
(thought of as a whole) taken three times is twelve." But it is more common, it is 
thought, to use are. 

"Three times four are twelve = three repetitions of four are twelve." — Century 
Dictionary. 

3 Except when confessing his fault, it is customary for the speaker who is using 
pronouns of the three persons to place first the pronoun of the second person, to place 



THE VERB 193 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, 
gender, and person, as : — 

" I ivho am here" ; "Thou who writest" ; " He that speaks on 
his own account, and she ivho talks for herself'' ; " They who plead 
for themselves.' 1 '' 

THE AUXILIARIES — MEANINGS, ENDINGS, USES 

Be. — The substantive verb be has three roots — (1) bhu 
(Latin in-i, Greek phu-o) seen in be and been, and meaning 
to ' grow ' ; (2) as (Latin s-wm, Greek es-mi) seen in am, art, 
is, and are, and meaning to 'sit' or to 'breathe' — the s 
syncopated in am, and changed by Werner's law to r in art 
and are, and the a appearing as i in is; and (3) was or wes, 
seen in ivas, ivast, were, and wert, and meaning to ' dwell ' — 
the s changed to r in were and ivert. 

The concrete meanings of these roots have all faded out of 
the verb; it now signifies simple existence — is oftenest 
merely a copula. 

The personal ending -m in a-m — the only -m verb-ending 
in English — is the m of the first personal pronoun me; 
the -t of ar-t, was-t, and wer-t is the ft of %u, 'thou'; is is 
the root without ending ; and the -e of ar-e and wer-s — the 
only indicative forms in English that cannot be used in the 
singular as well as in the plural — is not derived from a 



next the pronoun of the third person, and to place last the pronoun referring- to him- 
self. He follows the same order when using pronouns of hut two different persons ; 
as, " You and he and 7, you and he, you and 7, he and 7, are invited." 
H. SCH. GRAM. 13 



194 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

personal pronoun, but is a vowel which originally con- 
nected the stem to a personal pronoun which has dropped. 

The auxiliary be 1 in its various forms enters alone or 
along with other auxiliaries, into combination with the 
infinitive and with the participles of verbs to aid in con- 
jugation. 

Do. — Instead of the simple forms of a verb in the 
present and past tenses indefinite, do, do-st, do-es, and the 
reduplicated di-& and di-d-st are used with the present 
infinitive of the verb in (1) negative 2 and (2) interroga- 
tive 2 sentences ; and (3) to express emphasis. 2 The form do 
is used also (4) wdth the imperative 2 of a verb. 

Have. — The auxiliary have, ha(ve)~&t 9 ha(ye)-&, fea(ve)-th, 
ha(ve)-&, has lost its old concrete meaning of possession — 



1 Be is also an independent verb. Its full conjugation may be seen in chapter XXII. 

2 As in (1) " I do not look for him yet" ; (2) " What did you see ? " (3) " You say 
he does not resemble his father but I say he does " ; (4) " Do sit down and listen. 

Mason tells us that do is not thus used (1) when the subject is an interrogative 
pronoun, or (2) when the subject, or an adjective modifying it, is qualified by an inter- 
rogative word. We say, " Who or what men or how many men voted V (not did 
vote). 

Still, in poetry, we find such questions as, il What wound did ever heal but by 
degrees?" The negative and emphatic did does not come under Mason's rule; as, 
" Who did not vote ? " " Who did vote ?" 

Do, independent, is in all its forms (1) an ordinary transitive verb meaning to 
1 perform ' ; or (2) is used as a convenient substitute for any other verb, as : — 

(1) "He did his duty as a citizen " ; (2) "His face shines as does (= shines) the 
moon"; "Proceeding, as it does (=proceeds) from the brain, the spinal marrow 
extends downward through the back-bone." 

Gan, preterit of O.E. -ginnan, is used in Middle English with the force of did 
emphatic, as in 

" She kiste her sone, and after gan it blesse." — Chaucer. 






THE VERB 195 



a meaning it retains as an independent, or notional, verb. 
In its early uses as an auxiliary with the past participle 
of transitive verbs, it kept its meaning of possession, the 
participle agreeing in gender, number, and case with the 
object complement of have. 1 

The idea of possession gradually fading out of have, the 
verb became a mere formative element ; and the participle, 
ceasing to agree with the object, blended with have in a 
compound tense followed by the object. When this stage 
was reached, have was ready for use with the participles 
of intransitives. Its use with them has increased, until 
now it has almost ousted be from such combinations 2 and 
? taken its place. 

The auxiliary have, in its various forms, enters alone 
or along with other auxiliaries, into combination with the 



1 As in, "Hie hi-ne ofslceg -en-ne 7ice/-d-on " ; "He hcef-6.-e fta wls-a.ii onfang- 
en-e" — in which the -ne and -e show that in number, gender, and case, ofslcegen- 
ne, 'slain,' and onfangen-Q, 'taken hold of,' agree with hi-ne, 'him,' and wis-an, 
•matter' — object complements of Ace/'-don, hcef-de, 'had.' 

Have is an independent verb also. Its conjugation is given in chapter XXII. 

2 The original O.E. present perfect, and past perfect auxiliaries used with tran- 
sitive verbs were forms of habban, 'have'; those used with intransitives were 
forms of beon, 'be.' Habban encroached upon beon ; we have extended the 
encroachment of have upon be. March allows that " have with an intransitive does 
not bear analysis," but says, "We do not want two tense signs for the same 
tense." Be, which Whitney thinks "would theoretically be more correct" with 
intransitives, has yielded; and have is the common auxiliary of these two tenses. 

But be is still sometimes used in these tenses with intransitive verbs of 
motion, rest, growth, and disappearance, as in "The time is gone by " ; "When 
they were come out of the city"; "The world is grown so bad"; "What is 
become of him ? " " The mountains are vanished " ; " The heathen are perished.''' 



196 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

participles of the verbs whose conjugation it is aiding — 
as may be seen in chapter XXII. 

Must. — The auxiliary must, the Mn.E. of the O.E. 
moste from motan, has but one form. It is always in- 
dicative, and denotes (1) obligation 1 and (2) certainty. 1 

It is used with the present infinitive 1 of a verb to 
form its present tense indefinite ; and with have and the 
past participle 1 of a verb to form its present perfect 
complete. 

Shall and Will. — Shall, shal-t is the O.E. sc(e)al, from 
sculan; and will, 2 wil-t is from O.E. willan. To form the 
O.E. future of any verb these auxiliaries were used with 
its present infinitive. Neither of these, etymologically, 
expressed futurity. Sculan 3 indicated debt, duty ; willan, 2. 



1 As in (1) "We must obey"; (2) "He must have seen you." 
" So mote it be," the old optative, is a familiar wish. 

2 Our won't, ' will not,' is a contraction of an old present form wol and not. 
Willy-nilly = 'will he, nill he' = 'whether he will or whether he nill' (will not). 

The negative ne combines with many adverbs, pronouns, and interjections as in 
n-ever, n-aught, n-either, n-ay, n-or, etc. ; and in O.E. and later, it united with 
verbs, as in nam, nis, nas, nill, etc. 

3 Why, in the absence of a real synthetic future tense, were not auxiliary verbs 
chosen that signified futurity? Marsh ventures this reply : "To our rude ancestors 
. . . the present was full of stern necessities ; the past, of hard and painfully 
impressed realities. The future was too doubtful to justify the employment of 
words implying prediction or even hope ; and they appropriated to it forms indica- 
tive of a present purpose, determination, or duty, not of prophecy or of expectation." 
March says, " All times were at first expressed by the same verb form. In the 
next period, a second form was used for completed, or past, action, leaving the 
present and future the first form. Then in O.E., sculan and willan came in to 
express various kinds of future action, and lastly became the common form for 
simple futures in Mn.E." 



THE VERB 197 

wish, purpose, or determination. In Mn.E., shall and will 
are used to express future action l or being, but with much 
of their original signification still clinging to them. 

Shall and Will in the Future. — In the three persons of 
the future, shall and will alternate. 2 Ordinarily used as 
in 

"I shall walk"; " You will walk"; "He will walk," 

shall and will foretell, and are simple future auxiliaries. 
But in 

"I will walk"; "You shall walk"; " He shall walk," 

: shall and will express the determination of the speaker, and 
• cannot properly be regarded simply as future auxiliaries. 3 

Arbitrary as the distinction between these auxiliaries in 

i 

1 0. F. Emerson, in History of the English Language, says, "During the 
Middle English period, the future came to be regularly expressed by the auxiliary 
shall. Toward the close of the same period, will was also used, along with shall, 
in the first person, to express a promise or a threat. In the modern period, will 
. . . came to be used in the second and third persons to express futurity." 

2 "The present distinction between shall and will in the different persons is not 
established in O.E., nor in Scottish or Irish. In the simple future will has been 
encroaching upon shall in America ; and has quite taken its place in the colloquial 
speech of all but Xew Englanders, and their descendants." — F. A. March. 

This distinction between shall and will in the three persons Marsh condemns as 
j "a verbal quibble, serving no end but to embarrass"; and he predicts its speedy 
disappearance — a prediction not yet fulfilled. 

Still, in subordinate clauses introduced by as, if, though, till, unless, when, etc., 
or by a relative pronoun, the distinction is not rigidly observed. Here shall may 
be used in the three persons ; as, " If you or I or any one shall break a moral 
law, punishment will follow"; "A free people is always prepared for whatever 
shall occur"; " If a man shall steal an ox, he shall restore him five oxen." 

8 Mason says even, "'Thou shait not steal' involves no prediction; it asserts a 
present obligation. Consequently, in this sentence we have not a future tense." 



198 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

the three persons may seem, the change from shall in the 
first person future to will in the second and in the third has 
a reason. It is the reason that accounts for the substitu- 
tion of the plural you for the singular thou in addressing- 
one — courtesy. 

Will yet savors far too strongly of self-determination for 
the speaker's use in foretelling what he is to do ; hence he 
uses shall, which still plainly implies external influence, 
compulsion of some kind, duty. But that which unfits ivill 
and fits shall for the speaker's need in predicting his own 
actions, fits will and unfits shall for forecasting the actions 
of another — the person spoken to or spoken of. 

Modesty leads the speaker to place himself under the 
determination of some power outside of himself ; courtesy 
leads him to leave others to their own determination. 1 

But such modesty and courtesy are laid aside when the 
speaker has to assert firm purpose respecting self, and 
necessity or promise respecting others. Here he resorts to 
the self-purposeful will in the first person and the compul- 
sory shall in the second and third, as : — 

" I will not pay twenty-one shillings and sixpence, ship money " ; 
" Thou shalt not be as the hypocrites are " ; "He shall be paid." 

The auxiliary used in a question is that which, as indi- 
cating prediction, purpose, or necessity, is expected in the 
answer, as : — 

1 One may courteously avoid even the proper exercise of authority, and, assuming 
his servant's readiness to obey, may say, " You will see that I am called." 



THE VERB 199 

" Shall you pay ? " "I shall " ; " FR7? * it rain ? " "It will 1 " ; 
41 tffcaZZ he stay ? " "He shall "; " TTOZ you go ? " "I tgfll." 

aS/mx^ and wiB are always in the indicative. Their use 
with the present infinitive and the participles of other 
verbs in the future and future perfect tenses may be seen 
in chapter XXII. 

Should and Would. — - Shoul-d, shoul-d-e&t, or shoul-d-st, is 
the preterit sceol-de — the O.E. sc appearing here as else- 
where as sh ; and woul-d, ivoul-d-e&t, or woul-d-st, is the pre- 
terit icol-de. Their use in the conjugation of other verbs 
may be seen in chapter XXII. 

Should 2 and ivould are in the indicative when they aid 
in asserting, as facts, obligation and intention; they are in 

1 In speaking, as here, of something incapable of volition, there seems to be no 
trace of the original meaning of will, unless we regard the question and answer as 
containing a species of personification. 

2 Should and would, though preterit in form, do not always express the act as past. 
In ''He said he should soon go," "He thought he would go," should and would 
assert action future with respect to that of said and thought. In " If I should refuse, 
he would be angry," " Though he should be present, it would do no good," the sub- 
junctive should and icould express mere conception without reference to past time. 
In (1) "I should be unwilling to attempt that," and (2) " You should stand up for 
your rights," should denotes (1) self -distrust, and (2) obligation, without refer- 
ence to past time. 

Would is often used to soften the assertion, as in " It would be well to ask," " It 
would seem so." 

"The auxiliaries shall, should, will, and would commonly express some imper- 
ative or optative modification of the principal action — such as is expressed in many 
languages by modes. The nice distinctions of obligation, constraint, command, 
intention, permission, and promise, varying as the clause is indicative, subjunctive, 
interrogative, responsive, conditional, and the like, are among the most difficult 
objects of study in language, and are generally left to special treatises." — F. A. 
March. 



200 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

the subjunctive when they aid in asserting these as mere 
conceptions. 

The principle that guides in the use of shall and will in 
the different persons guides in the use of should and would 
in them. Just as we say- 
He thinks that I shall be lonely and that he will visit me," 
so we say 

" He thought that I should be lonely and that he would visit me." 

May and Might. — May, may-est, or may-st is the O.E. 
mceg — the g becoming y; — and migh-t, might-t-est, or 
might-t-st, is its preterit mih-te — the h becoming gh. 

They are used to express * (1) permission, (2) possibility 
or liability, and (3) wish (this only in the subjunctive). 
May and might are in the indicative when they aid in 
asserting something as a fact : they are in the subjunctive 
when they aid in asserting it as a mere conception. 

With what forms and in what tenses of the verb which 
it is aiding to conjugate, may is found, is seen in chap- 
ter XXIL Might is used in the tenses where should and 
would are employed. 



1 As in (1) "You may go" "You might hand me that"; (2) "We may die 
to-night," "You might slip on the ice" ; (3) '"''May you be happy," "Oh! that I 
might Jiy away." 

Note the delicate shades of meaning in auxiliaries ! 



THE VERB 201 

Can and Could. — Can, 1 canst was once an independent 
verb meaning 2 to 'know/ and had a past participle cufff 
' known.' It now asserts ability or power. Its preterit 
coul-d has dropped the n of can, and through the influence 
of should and ivould has added an 1 in spelling but not 
in sound. 

Can is used in the indicative, and in tenses where the 

indicative may is found. Could is indicative when it aids 

in asserting something as a fact; it is subjunctive when it 

aids in asserting it as a mere conception. Could is found 

! in the tenses where should and would are used. 



SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTEK, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Number and Person. Excep- 
tions to the Rule for Number. Auxiliaries — Roots, Meanings, End- 
ings, Uses. Encroachments of Have upon Be. Shall and Will m the 
Future. 

Questions. — Definition of number and person? Rule? The one 
distinguishing number and person ending of verbs in the common 
style ? The endings in the solemn style ? When is rule for the 
agreement of verbs almost invariable ? When need and dare used 
instead of needs and dares f When do plural nouns take verbs in the 
singular ? What seeming exception to the rule is the source of many 
mistakes? What exceptions to the rule that two or more nom- 



1 Can, may, must, ought, shall, and will were originally past forms ; hence there 
is no -S in the present indicative third singular. 

2 This meaning is still seen in con and cunning, and in the cognate ken. 

3 Still seen in uncouth, ' unknown,' and hence ' awkward,' ' boorish.' 



202 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

inatives in the singular, connected by and, require a plural verb, 
are given ? What seeming exceptions to the rule, when these obvi- 
ous ellipses are given ? A collective noun, singular in form, has its 
verb in the singular, when ? In the plural, when ? In what person is 
the verb when one of its subjects connected by and is of the first per- 
son ? When one is of the second person and there is none of the first ? 
A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in what? Which is common, 
" Three times four is twelve" or "three times four are twelve" ? 
The order of pronouns in a sentence ? The roots, and the meanings of 
the roots, of be ? Its endings, what ? Its meaning now, what ? Is be 
ever an independent verb ? The functions of do as auxiliary ? Of 
do, independent? Gan, once used how? What has the auxiliary 
have lost ? With what did the past participle used with have once 
agree ? How came it to unite, as now, with have to form compound 
tenses ? Upon what verb has have encroached ? What do March 
and Whitney say of have and be ? Be still used with intransitive verbs 
denoting what? Must denotes what? Shall and will from verbs 
originally meaning what ? Neither implied what ? What is Marsh's 
explanation of the fact that our O.E. ancestors did not choose 
auxiliaries implying futurity ? What is March's note ? In simple 
prediction, what is the use of shall and will in the three persons? 
Has the present distinction between them in these persons always 
existed? What is Marsh's prophecy respecting this distinction? 
In what clauses is the distinction ignored ? What is the use of shall 
and will in the three persons when expressing the determination of 
the speaker? What has given rise to the distinction between shall 
and will in these persons ? What parallel elsewhere ? What unfits 
ivill for use in the first person when the speaker is foretelling? 
What fits shall for this office ? What fits will and unfits shall for 
this office in the second and third persons? What is laid aside 
when the speaker has to assert firm purpose respecting himself, 
and promise or necessity respecting others ? How then does he use 
shall and will f How are these auxiliaries used in questions ? How 
is the seeming exception to the use of will in " Will it rain?" ac- 



THE VERB 203 

counted for? Shall and will always in what mode? Should and 
would express what ? When in the indicative ? When in the sub- 
junctive ? Though preterit in form, do should and would always 
express the action as past ? Would often used for what ? May and 
might express what ? When indicative ? When subjunctive ? Can 
once meant what? The original meaning of can still seen in what 
words ? What consonant has could dropped ? Both mean what ? 
Are used how? What verbs have no -s in the third singular present ? 
Exercises. — Give sentences in which one is liable to mistake nouns 
plural in form only for real plurals. Illustrate the exceptions to the 
rule requiring the plural with two or more singular subjects connected 
by and. Give sentences illustrating the singular verb with a collect- 
ive noun singular in form ; the plural verb. Illustrate the several 
uses of do, auxiliary ; of do, independent. Illustrate the uses of be 
in compound tenses ; of shall and will in simple prediction ; of shall 
and will in expressing determination ; of should and would when not 
expressing past time. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE VERB— (Continued) 
VERBS CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM 

With respect to meaning, verbs have been classed as 
transitive and intransitive. With respect to form, we classify 
them as strong and weak. 

Strong Verbs. — The verbs that we call strong owe their 
vowel-change, seen in the past tense, to the primitive Indo- 
European method of expressing completed action — that of 
doubling the stem syllable. In each verb, the two syllables 
— the reduplicating and the reduplicated — contracted in 
O.E. into one syllable, in which the vowel element of the 
original syllable was changed. 

Eew of the strong verbs now in English retain this re- 
duplication ; but most of them, in passing from the present 
time to the past, underwent a vowel-change produced by 
reduplication; and this vowel-change became significant of 
past time. 

VOWEL-CHANGES IN O.E. STRONG VERBS ILLUSTRATED 

In the columns below we exhibit the vowel-changes which 
the strong O.E. verbs that survive with us suffered in O.E. 

204 



THE VERB 



205 



— changes produced by reduplication, or by what may be 
called vowel-variation — changes which we have said came 
to mark past time. 



PRES. INF. 


PAST TENSE SING. AND PLTJ. 


PAST PART 


beat an, 'beat,' 


beot and beoton, 


beaten. 


biddan, 'bid,' 


bsed and bsedon, 


beden. 


blowan, ' blow,' 


bleow and bleowon, 


blowen. 


crawan, 'crow,' 


creow, creowon, 


era wen. 


cuman, 'come/ 


com and comon, 


cumen. 


drincan, ' drink, 


dranc and druncon, 


druncen. 


etan, 'eat,' 


set and aiton, 


eten. 


feallan, 'fall,' 


feoll and feollon, 


feallen. 


feohtan, 'fight,' 


fe^aht and fuhton, 


fohten. 


ireosan, ' freeze,' 


freas and fruron, 


froren. 


giefan, 'give,' 


geaf and geafon, 


giefen. 


hon, 'hang,' 


heng and hengon, 


hangen. 


ridan, 'ride,' 


rad and ridon, 


riden. 


seon, 'see,' 


seah and sawon, 


sawen. 


slean, ' slay,' 


sloh and slogon, 


slagen. 


stelan, 'steal,' 


sta3l and stolon, 


stolen. 


swerian, ' swear, 1 


swor and sworon, 


sworen. 


wacan, 'wake,' 


woe and wocon, 


wacen. 



The strong verbs now in English exhibit many vowel- 
changes in passing from what is now the present form to 
the preterit. As is seen in the column of strong verbs 
below, these changes are of a to e, to o, to u, and to oo ; of 
ay to ew; of e to o; of ea to a and to o; of ee to aw and to 
o ; of i to a, to o, to ou, to u ; of ie to ay ; of o to a and to 
e ; of oo to o ; of u to a ; and of y to ew. As above, vowel- 
changes in the participles sometimes attend. 



206 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Weak Verbs. 1 — The vowel-changes resulting from redupli- 
cation were so various and confusing that another method 
of indicating what is now the past tense was devised — 
the addition of a syllable 2 to the stem of the present. 
This furnished a fixed model to which all new verbs have 
conformed, and gave us the class of verbs called weak — a 
class including so large a majority 3 of the verbs now in 

1 " Strong and weak were first applied by Grimm on the theory that verbs of the 
one conjugation expressed the idea of past time by a mere modification of their own 
resources . . . while those of the other had to call in the help of an additional 
syllable to achieve the same result." — Professor Lounsbury. 

" Strong and Weak in conjugation mean that one class held strongly to the old 
forms, the other weakened to a new form." — F. A. March. 

Old and New, used to characterize the two classes, explain themselves. 

2 This syllable is generally believed to be a remnant of our did — the reduplicated 
form of do. 

Professor Whitney, Language and the Study of Language, says, " We tamed 
is in Moeso-Gothic [the oldest member of the Teutonic branch of our linguistic 
family] tamidedum, which means not less evidently tame-did-we than the Anglo- 
Saxon sothlice, ' soothly,' * truly,' means 'in a sooth-like (truth-like) way.' I loved is, 
then, originally Llove did, that is, J did love." 

Of the full form -ed in use, the e is the connecting vowel to which the O.E. connect- 
ive o or ia was reduced, or is an e otherwise brought in ; and the d is what, it is 
thought, remains of the did. 

8 In O.E. there were about 300 simple strong verbs — many of which compounded 
with prefixes. In capacity for compounding, O.E. strong verbs surpassed those in 
Mn.E. Lounsbury says of slandan that it combined with more than a dozen prefixes ; 
our stand unites with only two — with and under. 

Many of these O.E. strong verbs perished during the centuries succeeding the 
Norman Conquest and never entered Mn.E. ; and many have since gone over to the 
weak class. Of the 300 in O.E. not 100 are left. 

The desertion from the strong to the weak was checked by the appearance of a 
native literature in the second half of the fourteenth century — the time of Wyclif and 
Langland and Chaucer — and three centuries ago it stopped. 

Lounsbury says, " Since the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1558-1603, our speech has 
not lost a single strong verb. What the language then had it has ever since retained. 



THE VERB 207 

English that it is popularly called regular, 1 in distinction 
from the strong verbs called irregular. 1 

Another Distinction between the Two Classes of Verbs. — 
That strong verbs indicate past time by vowel-change, and 
weak verbs by adding a syllable, is the most vital distinction 
between the two classes but not the only one — the past 
participle of strong verbs ends in -en ; that of weak verbs, 
in -ed. 2 

The Principal Parts of a verb — those parts from which 
all the others are derived — are the present indicative or 
infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle. 

In the principal parts of the Mn.E. strong verbs below 
are seen (1) the vowel-change by which the past tense is 
indicated, (2) the other changes of the verb stem, and (3) 
the participle ending, changed or unchanged. 

In fact, the present disposition of the language is to cling firmly to the strong verbs it 
already possesses . . . and even to extend their number." 

And he instances verbs that wholly or in part have gone over from the weak to the 
strong — shake, shine, strive, dig, etc. 

But new verbs, from whatever source they come, are weak. So that, while the 
strong are not deserting to the weak, the weak are gaining in number. 

1 In a work following the development of the parts of speech from O.E. down, it 
seems best to employ the terms strong and weak, now used in the historical and 
scientific treatment of the English verb ; especially as, in speaking of those weak verbs 
that conform to the type, and of those that do not, we shall need the words regular and 
irregular. 

2 The losses that en and -ed sustained and the resulting irregularities of the parti- 
ciples will be given — those of en at the end of this list of strong verbs, and those of 
-ed at the end of the irregular weak verbs. 

This -ed is not the -ed of the past tense. The e is a connecting vowel, but the d is 
the t of a primitive suffix -ta, —as in Latin past participle ama-tas — from amare, 
to ' love ' — transformed. 



208 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



LIST OF STRONG VERBS IN MODERN ENGLISH 



PRESENT. FAST. 

(a)bide, 1 abode, 
(for)bear, {j^;. 



beat, 
(be) gin, 3 

(for) bid, 

bind, 

bite, 

blow, 

blow, 

' blossom ' 

break, 

chide, 

choose, 

cling, 

(be)come, 

dig, 



beat, 

f began, 
\ begun,* 



PAST PART. 

abode. 

borne, 
born. 2 

beaten, 
begun. 



/ bade, 
Ibid, 


bidden, 
bid. 


bound, 


bound. 


bit, 


bitten. 


blew, 


blown. 



blew, 

/ broke, 
\ brake,* 

chid, 

chose, 

clung, 

came, 

/dug, 



blown. 

broken. 

/ chidden, 
\ chid. 

chosen. 

clung. 



come. 

dug, 
{digged,* digged.* 



PRESENT. 

draw, 



PAST. 

drew, 



PAST PART. 

drawn. 



drink, 


i drunk,* drunk - 


drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


(be)fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


find, 


found, 


found. 


fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


&}**> 


got, 


/got, 
\ gotten.' 


(for) give, 


gave, 


given. 



(for) sake, 3 forsook, 



grind, 
grow, 

hang, 
heave, 



ground, 
grew, 



forsaken. 

ground. 

grown. 



( hung, hung, 

\ hanged, 5 hanged. 

f hove, hove, 

\ heaved, heaved. 



* Forms starred are now rare — archaic, poetic, or dialectic. The second forms of 
preterits or participles are judged to be less common than the first. 

1 Bide in the compound is a regular weak now ; it was strong in the O.E. 

2 Born is the participle of bear, to 'bring forth.' The participle of forbear, like 
that of bear, to ' carry,' ends in e. 

3 Begin and forsake are the only compounds in the list without simple forms in 
English. 

4 Used in begotten and forgotten ; got is in England the more common participle of 
get; gotten is more common in America, and is sometimes ignorantly called an 
Americanism. 

B Hanged and all italicized forms are those of regular weak verbs. Hang, hanged = 
put to death by ' hanging.' 



THE VERB 



209 



PAST. 

hid, 

held, 

knew, 

lay, 

rove, 

rode, 

rang, 

rose, 

ran, 

saw, 

f seethed, 
\ sod,* 



PAST PART. 

f hidden, 
(hid. 

f held, 
\holden.* 

known. 

lain. 

rove. 

ridden. 

rung. 

risen. 

run. 

seen. 

sodden, 
seethed. 



shook, shaken. 

/ sheared, shorn, 

\ shore,* sheared. 

shone, shone. 

shot, shot. 

f shrank, shrunk, 
\ shrunk,* shrunken. 

j shrived, shrived, 



(he) speak, 



\ shrove, 

f sang, 
\ sung,* 

sank, 

sat, 

slew, 

slid, 

slung, 
slunk, 
smote, 
f spoke, 



\ spak 



shriven. 

sung. 

sunk. 

sat. 

slain. 

J slidden, 
\ slid. 

slung. 

slunk. 

smitten. 

spoken. 



PRESENT. 

spin, 
spring, 



PAST. 

spun, 



PAST PART. 

spun. 



^f }stand,stood, 



(sprang 
(sprung,* b P run o- 



stave, 

steal, 
stick, 
sting, 

stink, 

stride, 

strike, 

string, 
strive, 



f stove, 

X staved, 

stole, 

stuck, 

stung, 

f stank, 
X stunk,* 

strode, 



stood. 

stove, 
staved. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stunk. 

stridden. 



struck J stmck > 
struct, j stricken# 

strung, strung, 
strove, striven. 



(for) swear, swore, sworn, 
swum. 



f swam, 
swim, -< 

' \ swum, 

swing, 



swung. 

taken. 

torn. 



swung, 
under } take, took, 
tear, tore, 

thrive i throve ' thriven, 

tnnve, ^ thrived, thrived. 

throw, threw, thrown. 

tread, trod(e), trodden. 

/ \ w f waked, ivaked, 

(a) wake, j woke / woke / 



wear, 

weave, 

win, 

wind, 

wring, 

write, 



wore, 

wove, 

won, 

wound, 

wrung, 

wrote, 



worn. 

woven. 

won. 

wound. 

wrung. 

written. 



H. SCH. GRAM. — 14 



210 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The Preterit, or Past Stems, of the Strong Verbs. — (1) 

For a summary of the vowel-changes in the preterit illus- 
trated above, see p. 205 ; (2) in beat, bit, chid, hid, etc., there 
is no vowel-change in the stem ; (3) in stood the n of the 
present stand is forced out ; (4) in struck there is a c not 
found in strike ; and (5) in sang and sung, sprang and 
sprung, swam and swum, we have double forms — one from 
each number in the O.E. 

The Participle Stem. — (1) Sometimes this is like the 
present stem, as in driven, fallen, run, and seen; (2) some- 
times, like the past, as in found, held, spoken, and stuck; and 
(3) sometimes different from either, as in flown and sunk. 

The Participle Ending. — (1) Sometimes the full, regular 
syllable -en is used, as in beaten, ridden, shrunken, and 
smitten — doubling the consonant or not, according to Eule 
III, and exceptions, p. 143 ; (2) sometimes the e of -en is 
dropped, as in known, slain, and torn; (3) sometimes this e 
is dropped, and an e added to the n, as in borne; (4) some- 
times the -en is dropped, as in fought, bound, stuck, and 
strung; and (5) sometimes the -en is retained in one form 
and dropped in another, as in hidden and hid, gotten and got, 
shrunken and shrunk. 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Strong Verbs — Vowel Changes 
in O.E. Weak Verbs. Distinctions. List of Strong Verbs in 
Mn.E. — their Preterit Stem, and Participle Stems and Endings. 






THE VERB 211 

Questions. — Verbs are classed as transitive and intransitive with 
regard to what ? As strong and weak ? Some strong verbs owe their 
vowel-change in passing from the present to the past tense, to what ? 
Most strong verbs underwent what ? In the O.E. list of strong verbs 
given, these vowel-changes are from what to what ? In the Mn.E. 
strong verbs, these changes are from what to what ? Why are the 
two lists of verbs called strong and weak ? Which is the older class ? 
Weak verbs form their preterit how ? The added syllable, -ed 
believed to be what ? What is the e of that syllable, and what the 
d ? How many strong verbs in O.E. ? How many in Mn.E. ? 
Account for the difference. For what are the terms regular and 
irregular reserved ? Any losses of strong verbs since 1600 ? How 
are weak verbs gaining in number ? What, besides the vowel- 
change in strong verbs and the added -ed in weak, is a distinction 
between the two classes ? The participle ending -ed of weak verbs, 
what ? The principal parts of a verb, what ? What in the list of 
Mn.E. strong verbs is shown? The difference between bom and 
borne 9 What is said of begin and forsake ? When two forms of 
the verb in the past tense, or of participles, are given in the list, .which 
is the more common ? Forms in italics are what ? The regular parti- 
ciple of get is what ? The more common now in England is what ? 
Hanged means what ? In what strong verbs is there no vowel- 
change seen now in the preterit ? What changes in the preterit stem 
are noted ? The participle stem is sometimes like what ? At other 
times is like what ? Examples of difference from both ? What is 
the full participle ending of strong verbs ? In what ways may this 
full ending be affected ? 

Exercises. — Pick out of the list verbs that illustrate all the vowel- 
changes spoken of p. 205. Pick out the verbs whose participle stem is 
like the present ; like the past ; like neither. Pick out the verbs 
whose participle endings are changed in any way from -en. Give the 
principal parts of the remaining verbs. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE VERB — (Continued) 

Weak Verbs. — Regular. — The regular weak verbs form 
their past tense by adding -ed 1 to the' present. They add 
also an -ed to form the past participle — the e final of the 
present stem and of the participle, if either stem ends in e, 
furnishing the e of the -ed. 

Some of the verbs, like cleave, ( adhere/ climb, crow, and 
help, were strong verbs once but have gone over to the 
weak, though an occasional strong preterit, clave, clomb, 
crew, or holp is still found in poetry. 

Some of these verbs, like (en)grave, hew, lade, mow, rive, 
shape, shave, sow, swell, and wax, were strong verbs once but 
have gone over to the weak, though their strong participles, 
graven, hewn, laden, mown, riven, shapen, shaven, sown, swol- 
len, and waxen are used along with the weak. 

Others of these verbs, like saw, show, and strew or strow, 
were never strong but have taken on strong participles, as 
sawn, shown, and strewn or strown, sometimes used instead 
of the weak. 

1 The added -ed of the regular weak verb is pronounced (1) after t and d as a dis- 
tinct syllable — as in greeted, hated, heated, lifted, wended; (2) after a sonant as 
d — as in dazed, drowned, loved, seemed; and (3) after a surd (except t) as t — as in 
forcedi fixed, kissed, looked, mixed, passed, reached, stretched, thanked, tossed. 

212 






THE VERB 



213 



Still, as these and all such verbs are prevailingly weak 
and regular, we class them so and pass the whole list by 
without further comment. 

Weak Verbs — Irregular. — In the principal parts of the 
irregular weak verbs below are seen the changes undergone 
(1) by the preterit and participle stems; (2) by the added 
-ed of the preterit ; and (3) by the added -ed of the participle. 



LIST OF THE IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS IN ENGLISH 



PRESENT 


PAST PAST PART. 


PRESENT 


PAST 


PAST PART. 


bend, 


f bent, 
X bended, 1 


bent, 
bended. 


burn, 


J burnt, 
X burned, 


burnt, 
burned. 


(be)reave, 


, 2 bereft, 


bereft. 


burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


(be) seech, 


, 3 besought, 


besought. 


buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


bet, 


f bet, 
X betted, 


bet, 
betted. 


can, 4 
cast, 


could, 
cast, 


cast. 


bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


blend, 


J blended, 
\ blent, 


blended, 
blent. 


cleave, 
4 split ' 


r cleft, 
< clove, 
(. clave,* 


cleft, 

cloven, 

cleaved. 


bless, 


/ blessed, 
X blest, 


blessed, 
blest. 


clothe, 


J clothed, 
X clad,s 


clothed, 
clad. 


breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


build, 


f built, 
X builded, 


built, 
builded. 


curse, 


f cursed, 
X curst, 


cursed, 
curst. 



* Forms starred are rare — archaic, poetic, or dialectic. 

1 Forms in italics are regular ; they precede the Roman when thought to be more 
common. Verbs in both italics and Roman are redundant. 

2 The simple verb reave is rare. 

8 The obsolete seech is from the Southern dialect ; seek, is from the Northern. 

4 Can, may, must, ought, shall, and will are defective — lacking some parts. 

5 Clad, O.E. clce^an, clwfide; whence cladde, clad. Clothe is from cld^ian. 



214 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



PRESENT 


PAST 


PAST PART. 


PRESENT 


PAST 


PAST PART. 


cut, 
dare, 1 


cut, 

f durst, 
X dared, 


cut. 
dared. 


lean, 
leap, 


f leaned, 
X leant, 

f leaped, 
X leapt, 


leaned, 
leant. 

leaped, 


deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


leapt. 


dip, 


f dipped, 
\ dipt, 


dipped, 
dipt. 


learn, 


f learned, 
X learnt, 


learned, 
learnt. 


do, 


did, 


done. 


leave, 


left, 


left. 




J dreamt, 
\ dreamed, 

T dressed, 
\ drest, 


dreamt, 


lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


dream, 


dreamed, 
dressed, 


light, 3 


( lighted, 
I lit, 


lighted, 
lit. 


dress, 


drest. 


lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


dwell, 


J dwelt, 
X divelled, 


dwelt, 


make, 


made, 


made. 


dwelled. 


may, 


might. 





feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


meet, 


met, 


met. 


flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


must. 








gild, 


f qilded, 
I gilt, 


gilded, 
gilt. 


ought. 

pay, 


paid, 


paid 


gird, 


f girded, 
X girt, 


girded, 
girt. 


pen, 

4 confine ' 


f penned, 
X pent, 


penned, 
pent. 


have, 2 


had, 


had. 


plead, 


(pleaded, 
X plead, 


pleaded, 


hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


plead. 


hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


put, 


put, 


put. 


hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


quit, 
read, 


f quit, 
\ quitted, 

read, 


quit, 


keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


quitted. 
read. 


kneel, 


f knelt, 

X kneeled, 


knelt, 
kneeled. 


rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


knit, 


j knit, 
X knitted, 


knit, 
knitted. 


rid, 
say, 


rid, 
said, 


rid. 
said. 


lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


lead, 


led, 


led. 


sell, 


sold, 


sold. 



1 These are the parts of dare, to ' venture ' ; dare, to ' provoke,' is regular. 

2 {Be)have is regular. 

3 (A)light is regular, 



THE VEBB 



215 



PRESENT 

send, 

(be) set, 

shall, 

shed, 

shoe, 

shred, 

shut, 

sleep, 

slit, 

smell, 

speed, 

spell, 

spend, 

spill, 



PAST 

sent, 

set, 

should. 

shed, 

shod, 

shred, 

shut, 

slept, 

r slit, 

\ slitted, 

f smelled, 
\ smelt, 

J sped, 
\ speeded, 



\ spelt, 

spent, 

( spilled, 
\ spilt, 



PAST PART. 

sent, 
set. 

shed. 

shod. 

shred. 

shut. 

slept. 

slit, 
slilted. 

smelled, 
smelt. 

sped, 
speeded. 

spelled, 
spelt. 

spent. 

spilled, 
spilt. 



spit, 1 

split, 

spoil, 

spread, 

stay, 2 

sweat, 

sweep, 
teach, 
(fore) tell, 
think, 
thrust, 

wet, 

will, 

work, 



PAST 

f spit, 
\ spat,* 

split, 

f spoiled, 
\ spoilt, 

spread, 

f stayed, 
\ staid, 

f sweat, 
\ sweated, 

swept, 

taught, 

told, 

thought, 

thrust, 

f wet, 
\ wetted, 

would. 

f worked, 
\ wrought, 



PAST PART. 

spit, 
spitten.* 

split. 



spoilt. 

spread. 

stayed, 
staid. 

sweat, 
sweated. 

swept. 

taught. 

told. 

thought. 

thrust. 

wet. 



worked, 
wrought 



Changes in the Preterit 3 Stems of Weak Irregular Verbs. 
— 1. Vowel variation. The vowel element of the present 
may change in the past. But this change is not, as in 
strong verbs it is, a tense sign. 

An a and an o in the present stem may expand into a diph- 



1 Spit, to ' transfix,' is regular. 

2 Stay, the nautical term, is regular. 

3 The changes of preterit and of participle stems are alike, except in do, did, done. 
Many of the changes of stem and of ending began in O.E. — especially (1) the 

vowel variation and the consonant changes illustrated in caught, brought, thought, 
etc. ; (2) the omission of e from both preterit and participle ending; (3) the change of 
-d to -t ; and (4) the dropping of the consonant after stems ending in d or t. 



216 HIGH SCHOOL GEAMMAB 

thong in the past, as in the preterit caught and wrought; 

(2) a and i may change to a diphthong, as in could and 
brought; (3) a, e, and o may change to other single vowels, 
as in might, durst, sold, and did ; (4) ea may contract to e, as 
in led; (5) an e of ee may drop, as in fed ; (6) final y may 
change to i, with or without change of vowel sound, as in 
said and paid; (7) final e may drop, as in shod; and (8) uy 
may change to ou, as in bought. 

2. Consonant Change. 1 —^) Of the O.E. preterit stem, 
the h (into which the c of the present secan, ' seek ', thencan, 
' think', tWcan, 'teach', and wyrcan, 'work', the ch of 
cachen, 'catch', the eg of byegan, 'buy', and the ng of 
bringan, ' bring ', were converted) becomes gh in our preter- 
its sought, thought, taught, wrought, caught, bought, and 
brought; (2) v may change to f, as in the preterit left; 

(3) k in make is dropped from the preterit made,; (4) final 
d, ght, 1, s, and th may give way before the past tense sign, 
as in bent, lit, told, blest, and clad; and (5) the consonant and 
the vowel element may change places, as in wrought 

Changes in the Tense Sign -ed of irregular weak preterits 
and in the -ed of their participles. — (1) The e of the -ed 
drops out and only -d remains, as in heard, sold, etc. ; (2) -d 
changes to -t, as dwelt, sent, etc. ; and (3) the consonant 
drops after final d or t of stem — affecting, or not affecting, 
the pronunciation — as in read and in cast, shed, put, etc. 

l Many of these changes are due, it is thought, to bad spelling. 



THE VEBB 



217 



Anomalous Verbs 

Be and Go. — The principal parts of be and of go are from different 
stems, and the verbs cannot be classed as strong or as weak. These 
parts are (1) be, toas, and been; (2) go, went, and gone. 

The preterit of be does not add to the present the past tense sign 
of a weak verb — namely -ed or some form of it; the preterit of go 
adds it as -t, not, however, to go but to the present of the regular 
weak verb wend. 

The participles return to the first stem. Been is the dialectic 
participle beon ; gone has the strong participle ending. 

Definitions 

Conjugation is the Regular Arrangement of all the Forms of 
| the Verb. 

Synopsis is the Regular Arrangement of the Forms of one 
number and person in all the modes and tenses. 

O.E., or Anglo-Saxon, Conjugation or Strong and Weak 
Verbs in the Present, Active Voice 



Indicative 



Subjunctive 



SINGULAR 



SINGULAR 



1. (ic) sing-e, (we) sing-aft, 

2. (ftu) sing-est, (ge) sing-aft, 

3. (he) sing-eft ; (hi) sing-aft. 



(ic) sing-e, (we) sing-en, 
(ftu) sing-e, (ge) sing-en, 
(he) sing-e ; (hi) sing-en. 



IMPERATIVE SING. 

sing. 



IMPERATIVE PLU. 

sing-aft. 



INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE 

sing-an. sing-ende. 



218 



HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 



Conjugation 



of Strong Verbs, Past Tense, 
Active 



Indicative 


Subjunctive 


SINGULA! 




1. (ic) sang, 


sung-e, 


2. (M) sung-e, 


sung-e, 


3. (he) sang; 


sung-e ; 


PLURAL 





1. (we) sung-on, sung-en, 

2. (ge) sung-on, sung-en, 

3. (hi) sung-on. sung-en. 

participle 

sung-en. 



of Weak Verbs, Past Tense, 
Active 



Indicative 



Subjunctive 



SINGULAR 



(ic) er-ed-e 'plough,' er-ed-e, 
(M) er-ed-est, er-ed-e. 

(he) er-ed-e; er-ed-e; 



PLURAL 




(we) er-ed-on, 


er-ed-en, 


(ge) er-ed-on, 


er-ed-en, 


(hi) er-ed-on. 


er-ed-en. 


PARTICIPLE 




er-ed. 





Remarks on the O.E. Conjugation. — 1. The ending of the im- 
perative singular of some weak verbs is -e and of some is -a. But 
if these divergencies from the conjugation of strong verbs are dis- 
regarded, the inflections of the strong and the weak verbs in the 
present are the same. 

2. All tenses but the present and the past are compound, and 
are alike in O.E. and in Mn.E. In studying the O.E. verb-endings, 
we may restrict ourselves, then, to the present and past tenses. 

3. The -ed in the past tense endings of weak verbs excepted, 
(1) the past indicative plural endings of strong verbs and of weak 
are alike ; (2) the past subjunctive singular endings of strong verbs 
and of weak are alike ; and (3) the past subjunctive plural endings 
of strong verbs and of weak are alike. 



THE VEBB 219 

4. The vowel-change indicating the past tense of strong verbs 
is often, as in singan, double, one form in the first and the third 
person singular indicative ; and the other in the second person sin- 
gular and the three persons plural indicative, in the subjunctive 
throughout, and in the participle. These two stems in O.E. account 
for the two forms of our preterit — as drank and drunk, sang and 
sung — still found in some strong verbs. 

5. Most of the O.E. verb-endings have disappeared. (1) The 
vowels softened to e ; (2) the n J final, and then (3) the e 1 final, 
dropped ; (4) the -a3 of the plural indicative, softening to e3, 
changed to -en, whose letters vanished in the order just given, or to 
s (as in the third singular), which has dropped; and (5) the 3 of 

i the plural imperative gave way, and then the vowel preceding it. 



SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Weak Verbs — Regular and 
Irregular. Changes in Stem and Endings. The Anomalous Verbs 
Be and Go. O.E. Conjugation of Verbs in Present and Past. Re- 
marks thereon. 

Questions. — Regular weak verbs add what to the present to make 
the past ? To make the participle ? What changes may this ending 
undergo ? What happens to e final of the stem when the past is 
formed ? Some verbs, now weak, use what strong forms ? Others, 
what ? Some, never strong, have taken on what ? What three things 
are seen in the principal parts of the irregular weak verbs in the list ? 
What are redundant verbs ? What verbs are defective ? In these 
irregular weak verbs, what vowel changes are seen ? Seen where ? 
Is this vowel change a tense sign ? What consonant changes in the 

1 (1) In what forms of the verb IL and e are kept, (2) what endings other than 
those in n and e are kept, and (3) how these have changed will all be given when 
the Mn.E, verb is conjugated. 



220 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

preterits, sought, thought, taught, wrought, caught, bought, and 
brought? In left, made, bent, lit, told, blest, clad, and wrought? What 
changes of stem and ending began in O.E.? What changes in the -ed 
of preterits and participles ? The principal parts of be and go ? 
Explain the preterits. Conjugation, what ? Synopsis, what ? The 
endings of the O.E. present in the two conjugations, the strong and 
the weak, differ only in what ? Why limit our study of O.E. verb- 
endings to the present and the past tense ? In what three particulars 
are strong and weak verb-endings in the past alike ? Explain our 
redundant past forms drank and drunk, sang and sung. What O.E. 
verb-endings have disappeared and in what manner and order ? 

Exercises. — Give the principal parts of the irregular weak verbs. 
Give the endings — present and past — of the O.E. conjugations. 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 

THE VERB BE 

Indicative Mode 

Present Tense — Simple Form 

singular plural 

1. (I) a-m, (We) ar-e, 

2 f (You) ar-e, (Y . 

Z - \(Thou) ar-t, ^ Yon) ar_e ' 

3. (He) is ; (They) ar-e. 

Present Tense — Compound, or Potential, Form 

(In the indicative, may, can, or must helps to assert, as a fact, one's 
permission, power, or obligation to do — and, in the passive voice, to 
undergo — what is denoted by the principal verb.) 

1 1. (I) may, can, or must be, (We) may, can, or must be, 

2 f (You) may, can, or must be, (Y . b 

"' \ (Thou) may-st, can-st, or must be, t l0U J ma ^ can > °* mufet be > 

3. (He) may, can, or must be ; (They) may, can, or must be. 

Past Tense — Simple Form 
1. (I) was, 0^ 7 e) wer-e, 

2 J ( You ) wer " e > rYou^i wer e 

*' \ (Thou) was-t, t You J wei_e ' 

3. (He) was ; (They) wer-e. 

221 



222 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

Past Tense 
Compound, or Potential, Porm 

(In the indicative, might, could, would, or should helps to assert, as 
a fact, the possibility of one's doing, or one's power or intention or 
obligation to do — and in the passive voice, to undergo — what is 
denoted by the principal verb). 

1 m / migh-t, coul-d, \ h , w . f migh-t, coul-d \ h 

x ' W \ woul-d, or shoul-d J ' ^ } X woul-d, or shoul-d J De ' 

( You^ / mi S h - t ' coul - d X be 

v n woul-d, or shoul-d/ ' rY . f migh-t, coul-d, \ be 

' n^n^ J migh-t-st, coul-d-st, 1 ^ ; I woul-d, or shoul-d / ' 
t inou ; X woul-d-st, or shoul-d-st / De ' 

<* ( He i / ""g^ com " d ' I he • f Thev^i / m^ 11 "*' com " d ^ I be 

6 ' ^ e; \ woul-d, or shoul-d / De ' ^ iney ; \ woul-d, or shoul-d / De ' 

Future Tense 
Simple Prediction 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

1. (I) shall be, (We) shall be, 

f (You) will be, /v ^ N . in , . 

2 'i(Thou)wil-tbe, (You) will be, 

3. (He) will be ; (They) will be. 

Expressing Determination, and Promise also 

singular plural 

1. (I) will be, (We) will be, 

o i ( You ) shall be, fY . , « , 

J ' X (Thou) shal-t be, <^°u; sna11 De ' 

3. (He) shall be ; (They) shall be. 






THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 



223 






Indicative Mode 

Present Perfect Tense 

singular plural 

1. (I) have been, (We) have been, 

o J (You) have been, (y . , , 

*' \ (Thou) ha-st been, *> * ou >> nave been ' 

3. (He) ha-s been ; (They) have been. 

(For the office of the auxiliaries may, can, and must see present 



tense compound form above). 

1. (I) may, can, or must have 
been ; 



Etc. 



(We) may, can, or must have 

been. 

Etc. 



Past Perfect Tense 



1. (I) ha-d been, 



Q f (You) ha-d been, 
1. 1 ,— 



(We) ha-d been, 

(Thou) ha-d-st been, ( You ) ha " d been - 

3. (He) ha-d been ; (They) ha-d been. 

(Eor the office of the auxiliaries might, could, would, and should 
see past tense compound form above.) 



i. (i) 



migh-t, 






migh-t, 




coul-d, 






coul-d, 




, woul-d, 


- have been ; 


(We)- 


woul-d, 


have been. 


or 






or 




shoul-d, 






shcul-d, 




Etc. 






Etc. 








Future Perfect — Simple Prediction 

1. (I) shall have been, (We) shall have been, 

f (You) will have been, /v N .« . „„„ Urtrt „ 

2 - { (Thou) wil-t have been, ( You ) wl11 have been ' 



3. (He) will have been ; 



(They) will have been. 



224 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Subjunctive Mode 
Present Tense 
Simple Form Compound Form 

singular plural singular plural 

1. (I) be, (We) be, 1. (I) may be, (We) may be, 

2 f (You) be, (Y . , 2 f (You) may be, ry , 

z * t (Thou) be, t 10U J De ' ^ \ (Thou) may-stbe, t You ) may be ' 

3. (He) be; (They) be. 3. (He) may be : (They) may be. 

(For the offices in the subjunctive of be or of any other principal 
verb see pp. 172-175.) 

Subjunctive Mode 

Past Tense — Simple Form 

singular plural 

1. (I) wer-e, (We) wer-e, 

3. (He) wer-e ; (They) wer-e. 

Past Tense — Compound Form 

(In (1) simple sentences, might, could, and would help in the 
subjunctive to express wish. In (2) the principal clause of a 
sentence containing a clause of time, concession, purpose, or condition, 
and (3) in such adverb clauses introduced by till, lest, though, that, 
etc., might, could, would, and should help in the subjunctive to 
assert, as a conception, the possibility of one's doing, or one's power, 
intention, or obligation to do — and, in the passive voice, to undergo — 
what is denoted by the principal verb). 

1 (Vs / migk-t' coul-d, \ h . (W <. / migh-t, coul-d, \ b 

l ' w \woul-d, or shoul-dj De > ^ e) \ woul-d, or shoul-d| De * 

Etc. Etc. 



THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 225 



Present Perfect Tense 



1. (I) have been, 

2 f (You) have been, 
" \ (Thou) have been, 

3. (He) have been ; 



(We) have been, 
(You) have been, 
(They) have been. 



(In the subjunctive, may helps in simple sentences (1) to express a 
wish, and in adverb clauses of condition, purpose, and concession, 
introduced by if, that, lest, it helps to assert, as a conception, one's 
permission to do — and in the passive voice, to undergo — what is 
denoted by the principal verb.) 



1. (I) may have been ; 

Etc. 



(We) may have been. 
Etc. 



Past Perfect Tense 



1. (I) ha-d been, 

o f (You) ha-d been, 

' I (Thou) ha-d-st been, 

3. (He) ha-d been ; 



1. (I) 



f migh-t, 

coul-d, 

woul-d, 

or 

> shoul-d 

Etc. 



have been ; 



(We) ha-d been, 
(You) ha-d been, 
(They) ha-d been. 

' migh-t, 
coul-d, 
(We) \ W oul-d, I- have been. 
or 
. shoul-d 
Etc. 



Imperative Mode 

Present Tense 



singular 
2. Be (you or thou) ; 

H. SCH. GRAM. — 15 



PLURAL 

Be (you or ye). 



226 



HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 







Infinitives 




PRESENT 


TENSE 


present 


perfect tense 


(To) 


be. 


(To) 
Participles 


have been. 


PRESENT 




past 


PAST PERFECT 


Be-ing. 




Been. 
Nounal Verbs 


Hav-ing been. 


Be-ing. 


Hav- 


ing been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE 



Indicative Mode 



Present Tense 



Past Tense 



singular 

1. (I) have, 

Q / (You) have, 
Zt \ (Thou) ha-st, 

3. (He) ha-s; 



Simple Form 

plural singular 

(We) have, (I) ha-d, 

rYou^ have (You ) ha " d ' 

tiou; nave, ( Tho u) ha-d-st, 

(They) have. (He) ha-d ; 



PLURAL 

(We) ha-d, 
(You) ha-d, 
(They) ha-d. 



Subjunctive Mode 



Present Tense 



Past Tense 



singular 

1. (I) have, 

2 f (You) have, 
dm \ (Thou) have, 

3. (He) have ; 



Simple Form 

plural singular plural 

(We) have, 1. (I) ha-d, (We) ha-d, 

(You) have, 2. { jS^^t, (You) ha-d, 

(They) have. 3. (He) ha-d ; (They) ha-d. 






THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 227 

FURTHER CONJUGATION OF HAVE 
Indicative and Subjunctive Modes 



The Conjugation of Have in the Present and the Past 
Indicative and Subjunctive compound form, and in the 
remaining tenses of both modes simple and compound forms, 
is effected by substituting the infinitive have for be, and 
the participle had for been, in the corresponding tenses, 
modes, and forms of the conjugation of Be. 

OTHER FORMS OF HAVE 

If have be substituted for be, having for being, and had 
for been, in the imperative, infinitives, participles, and 
nounal verbs of the Conjugation of Be, we have the corres- 
ponding forms of Have. 

CONJUGATION OF THE STRONG VERB DRIVE 

Indicative Mode 

Present Tense Past Tense 

Simple Form 

singular plural singular plural 

1. (I) drive, (We) drive, 1. (I) drove, (We) drove, 

2 f (You) drive, (y . , . 2 r (You) drove, (y . , 

r \ (Thou) driv-est, ^ * ou) anve ' Z ' \ (Thou) drov-est, ^ * ou) arove ' 

3. (He) drive-s ; (They) drive. 3. (He) drove ; (They) drove. 



228 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Subjunctive Mode 

Present Tense Past Tense 

Simple Form 

1. (I) drive, (We) drive, 1. (I) drove, (We) drove, 

( f (You) drive, (y . , . „ f (You) drove, (Y . , 

* \ (Thou) drive, ^ ou ^ anve ' *' \ (Thou) drov-est, ^ lou) arove ' 

3. (He) drive ; (They) drive. 3. (He drove ; (They) drove. 

CONJUGATION OF THE WEAK VERB WALK 

Indicative Mode 

Present Tense 
Simple Form 
singular plural 

1. (I) walk, (We) walk, 

3. (He) walk-s ; (They) walk. 

Past Tense 

Simple Form 

singular plural 

1. (I) walk-ed, (We) walk-ed, 

2. i , ( I 0U \ wal ^ e ^' ♦ (You) walk-ed, 
\ (Thou) walk-ed-est, v J ' 

3. (He) walk-ed ; (They) walk-ed. 






THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 229 

Subjunctive Mode 

Present Tense 

Simple Form 

singular plural 

1. (I) walk, (We) walk, 

2 f (You) walk, (Y . ,, 

2 - \ (Thou) walk, t*°u) walK ' 

3. (He) walk ; (They) walk. 



Past Tense 
Simple Form 
singular plural 

1. (I) walk-ed, (We) walk-ed, 

2 f (You) walk-ed, (Y , walk „ ed 

A \ (Thou) walk-ed-est, ^ Y ou; walK ea, 

3. (He) walk-ed ; (They) walk-ed. 

FURTHER CONJUGATION OF DRIVE AND WALK 

Indicative and Subjunctive Modes 

The Conjugation of Drive or Walk in the Present and the 
Past Indicative and Subjunctive compound form, and in the 
remaining tenses of both modes simple and compound forms, 
is effected by substituting the infinitive drive or walk for be, 
and the participle driv-en or walk-ed for been, in the corre- 
sponding tenses, modes, and forms of the Conjugation of Be. 
That of other verbs is the same. 



230 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Imperative Mode 
Present Tense 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

2. Drive (you or thou) ; Drive (you or ye). 

2. Walk (you or thou) ; Walk (you or ye). 

Infinitives 

Present Tense Present Perfect Tense 

(To) drive. (To) have driv-en. 

(To) walk. (To) have walk-ed. 

Participles 

Present Past Past Perfect 

Driv-ing. Driv-en. Hav-ing driv-en. 

Walk-ing. Walk-ed. Hav-ing walk-ed. 

Nounal Verbs 

Driv-ing. Hav-ing driv-en. 

Walk-ing. Hav-ing walk-ed. 

The Verb-endings Now in English. — The -m in am is a 

primitive Indo-European ending, and the -e in ar-e is Scandi- 
navian. The O.E. terminations are (1) the e in wer-e; (2) 
the -est, -st, or -t of the second person singular, as in walk-est, 
may-st, and shal-t ; (3) the 3 1 of the third singular present 



1 This ending became -S first in the Northern Dialect ; it was used there in the 
plural also, — is found in the plural in Shakespeare, as in "My old bones aches" } 
41 His tear 8 runs down his beard." 



THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 231 

indicative, changed to -s, as in fights, changed to -es 1 after 
a guttural, a palatal, a sibilant, an o, and a y preceded by a 
consonant, as in fioc-es, pinch-es, Mss-es, clo-es, and cri-es ; (4) 
the -ed, -d, -t of the past tense of weak verbs, and (5) 
the -ed, -d, -t of the past participle weak, as in walk-ed, to!-&, 
and leap-t ; (6) the -en, -n of the past participle strong, as 
in brok-en and draw-n ; and (7) the -ende of the present 
participle changed to -ing, as in walk-mg. 

Some verb-endings are double — the past tense ending 
-ed plus a personal ending — as in migh-t-st, lov-ed-est. 

THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS WHEN DENOTING CON- 
TINUING ACTION 

The conjugation above is that of verbs in the present 
and the past and the future, indefinite; 2 and in the present 
perfect and the past perfect and the future perfect, 
complete. 2 

Their conjugation, when denoting action continuing, is 
effected by adding their present participle to the several 
forms of the substantive verb Be. 

A synopsis in the first person singular, and the impera- 
tive, the infinitive, the participle, and the nounal verb, are 
here given : — 

1 The e in -es is the connective e in O.E. e<3. This -eth, -th, used only in poetry 
and in solemn style, is the invariable ending in the King James Version of the Bible. 

* For a full account of the incidental offices of the tenses, as indicated by 
indefinite, complete, etc., see p. 178, 



232 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The Indicative. — (I) am driving ; (I) may, can, or must be driv- 
ing ; (I) was driving ; (I) might, could, would, or should be driving ; 
(I) shall be driving ; (I) have been driving ; (I) may, can, or must 
have been driving ; (I) had been driving ; and (I) might, could, would, 
or should have been driving. The Subjunctive. — (I) be driving ; (I) 
may be driving ; (I) were driving ; (I) might, could, would, or should 
be driving ; (I) have been driving ; (I) may have been driving ; (I) had 
been driving ; and (I) might, could, would, or should have been 
driving. Imperative. — Be (you or thou) driving; be (you or ye) 
driving. Infinitives. — (To) be driving ; and (to) have been driving. 
Participles. — Being driving ; been driving ; and having been driving. 
Nounal Verbs. — Being driving; having been driving. 

The Conjugation of the Verb with the Auxiliary Do. — It 
was said, p. 194, that do, do-st, do-es, di-&, and di-d-st are 
used with the present infinitive of a verb to help conjugate 
the verb in negative and interrogative sentences, and in those 
whose action is to be made emphatic, as in, 

(I) do love, etc. ; (I) do not love, etc. ; do (I) love ? etc. ; do (I) 
not love ? etc. ; (I) did love, etc. ; (I) did not love, etc. ; did (I) 
love ? etc. ; did (I) not love ? etc. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE 

The conjugation of a verb, strong or weak, in the Passive 
Voice is effected by adding its past participle to all the forms 
of fie. 

Neglecting some auxiliaries and forms that only repeat, 
we illustrate: — 

Am chosen ; may be chosen ; was chosen ; might be chosen ; shall be 
chosen ; will be chosen ; have been chosen ; may have been chosen ; had 



THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 233 

been chosen ; might have been chosen ; be chosen ; (to) be chosen ; 
(to) have been chosen; being chosen; chosen; having been chosen. 

The forms just given are those of the passive voice in 
the simple tenses 1 indefinite, and in the compound 1 tenses 
complete. 

For the passive denoting continuing action, a conjugation 2 
has long been in use, consisting of the forms of be plus 
the present participle of the verb used, as : — 

" The house is building " ; " The wood was burning," 

; precisely the conjugation of these verbs in the active voice 

when denoting continuing action. 

ISTo ambiguity can arise from this sameness so long as the 
' verb, as used, is unmistakably active or passive ; but when, 
J as used, it is one whose subject may name both the doer 

and the receiver of the act, the sentence is ambiguous, as : — 

" The chicken is eating " ; M The boy is whipping.' ' 

While there was but a single form to denote one as 

acting and as acted upon, these sentences would not tell 

j whether the chicken was alive and eating, or dead and 

1 being eaten ; whether the boy was whipping somebody, or 

; was being whipped by him. 

A century ago there crept into use a new and unambigu- 



1 For the tenses called simple, and those called compound, see p. 178. 

2 For the origin of this, see pp. 164, 165. 



234 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

ous form for the passive denoting continuing action — a 
phrase consisting of the forms of be in the present and the 
past, plus the participle being and the past participle of 
the verb used, as: — 

" The chicken is being eaten " ; " The boy was being whipped." 

We say in the present and the past, for this conjugation 
is confined to these tenses. Though firmly resisted, this 
" neologism " has won its way into good usage even with 
verbs where the old form would be unambiguous. 

Proscribed Verb Locutions. — We are told (1) that after an auxil- 
iary the principal verb must be repeated, unless the exact form of 
it already employed may be used with the auxiliary ; (2) that 
between auxiliaries no adverb should be placed ; (3) that do may 
be substituted for transitive verbs only ; (4) that the nounal verb 
in the present should not follow after ; and that we must avoid 
(5) the neologism described above ; (6) the idiom can help, seen in 
I can't help thinking ; (7) I am mistaken for I mistake ; (8) con- 
sider, for think, deem ; (9) grow, to express decrease ; (10) would 
instead of should in softened assertion ; (11) get, unless to express 
attainment by exertion, and (12) had rather, had better, with the 
infinitive, instead of would rather, would better. 

Usage approves the locutions here condemned, employing those 
proscribed in (2), (4), (5), (7), (8), (11), and (12) far more com- 
monly than the alternative expressions there given or suggested. 
We illustrate. 1 



1 (1) "No one knows that better than I do" "He saw it, but I could not," "I 
have never read them my sermon, and I don't know that I shall" ; (2) " The principle 
may easily be traced," "It will not be suppressed," "Can hardly have been 
learned"; (3) "Nothing worse happens to you than does to all"; (4) "So, after 






THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 235 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — The Conjugation of Be; of 
Have; of Drive; of Walk. Verb-endings now in English. Conju- 
gation of Verbs when denoting Continuing Action ; with the 
auxiliary Do; in the Passive Voice. Passive denoting Continuing 
Action. Proscribed Verb Locutions. 



waiting a minute, I began again " ; (5) " A field was being got ready for turnips" ; 
(6) " He's a free-trader because he can't help it " ; (T) " I think he must be mistaken " ; 

(8) " Curious, that we always consider solemnity essential to the idea of a future life " ; 

(9) "Did you ever hear of a man's growing lean by reading Romeo and Juliet ?" 

(10) "It would seem so" ; (11) " Get wet," "got well," "got sick," " got tired," 
"got dingy by use," etc. — get = become; "You've got to learn" — get and have 
express necessity ; " Knowledge that has got itself taught " — got is causative ; " As we 
gel on in years " — get denotes passive movement ; (12) " I had rather be a kitten 
and cry mew," " They had better confine themselves to plain English." 

"Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel John- 
son, the critics insisting upon the substitution of would or should, as the case may 
demand, for had ; but had rather and had belter are thoroughly established English 
idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. ' I 
would- rather not go ' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the 
element of choice, or will, in the matter ; but, in all ordinary cases, 'I had rather not 
go ' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood. 

" If, for ' You had better stay at home,' we substitute, ' You should better stay at 
home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place 
to that of obligation." — Standard Dictionary. 

In the analysis of " I had rather go," had is the predicate verb, the infinitive go is 
the objective complement, and the adjective rather completes had and belongs to go, 
i.e. is objective complement. Had (= should hold or regard) is treated as a past 
subjunctive. Rather is the comparative of the old adjective rathe, 'early,' from which 
comes the idea of preference. The expression means, " I should hold going prefer- 
able." 

The expressions, "You had better stay," "I had as lief not be," are similar in 
construction to " I had rather go." " I had sooner go " is condemned by grammarians 
because sooner is never an adjective. If sooner is here allowed as an idiom, it is a 
modifier of had. The expression equals, " I should more willingly have going." 



236 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Questions. — In what modes are may, can, and must used? They 
help to assert what in the indicative, active and passive ? In the 
subjunctive, active and passive ? In what modes are might, could, 
would, and should used ? Conjugate have in the present and the 
past, simple form, indicative and subjunctive. The further conjuga- 
tion of have is effected how ? Conjugate drive and ivalk in the 
present and the past, simple form, indicative and subjunctive. The 
further conjugation of drive and walk is effected how ? The -m in 
am from what ? The -e in are ? The O.E. terminations retained in 
Mn.E. are what ? And have changed from what ? When is -es, rather 
than -s, the third singular present indicative ending ? The O.E. 
-eth, -th used now only where ? Invariably used in what common 
book ? How is the conjugation of verbs when denoting continuing 
action effected ? Give a synopsis in the first person singular indica- 
tive of drive, when denoting continuing action. The conjugation of 
a verb, strong or weak, in the passive voice of the simple tenses indefi- 
nite and the compound tenses complete, is effected how ? The old 
fashion of conjugating a verb in the passive when denoting continuing 
action is what ? How did it originate ? This conjugation is precisely 
what other ? When only could ambiguity arise from this sameness ? 
What has arisen to prevent this ambiguity ? The new form consists 
of what ? Is limited to what two tenses ? What is said of this 
" neologism " ? What are the proscribed verb locutions? Which 
ones of these are more common than the alternative expressions 
prescribed ? What of had rather and had better ? 

Exercises. — Conjugate be throughout ; have throughout ; drive and 
walk, in active voice, throughout — in simple tenses indefinite, com- 
pound tenses complete, and simple and compound continuing. Conju- 
gate drive in the passive voice. Illustrate the ambiguity of be with 
the present participle active of a verb, when the verb is one whose 
subject may be the doer or the receiver of the act. Give and illustrate 
the several uses of get* 






CHAPTER XXIII 

THE ADVERB 

Adverbs — Uses. — There are words that modify verbs, 
and hence are called Adverbs, as in 

" He ran swiftly " ; " She ivalked thither " ; u They stay late.'' 1 

The acts expressed by ran and ivalked, and the state 
denoted by stay, are here limited by swiftly, thither, and late, 
adverbs of manner, place, and time. 

Some adverbs modify adjectives — affect the degree of the 
quality or the measure of the quantity denoted by them ; 
and some modify adverbs themselves. Adverbs, then, modify 
verbs and the modifiers of nouns and of verbs. 1 

We said that adjectives modify nouns by lessening the 
number or quantity of the things named. What effect ad- 
verbs have upon the scope of the words they modify 
depends upon the signification of the adverbs. In 

u The soil is wonderfully fertile" ; "He wanted less spacious 
grounds," 

1 Adverbs, then, are preeminently the modifiers in sentences. Those that qualify 
verbs are more numerous and more frequently used than those that qualify adjectives 
or adverbs. Upon adverbs and their equivalents we largely rely in expressing delicate 
shades of meaning, in making subtile distinctions of thought. 

237 



238 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 






the quality denoted by fertile is increased by wonderfully, 
and the quantity denoted by spacious is decreased by 
less. In 

" He admires her very much " ; "How seldom have you slept here ? " 

the act asserted by admires is intensified by rawc7i, and the 
measure of much is increased by very; the state expressed 
by have slept is narrowed by seldom; while the infrequency 
implied in seldom is only sought by the interrogative how. 

Exceptional Uses of Adverbs. — 1. Some adverbs may 
modify some prepositions, 1 as : — 

"This is just within the line " ; "I went far beyond the limit." 

2. Adverbs may modify a phrase, 1 as : — 

44 Only by eternal vigilance is liberty preserved." 

3. Adverbs may modify clauses and sentences, as : — 

14 She sat, simply because she could not stand 1 '' ; " Undoubtedly two 
and two are four." 

4. Adverbs may modify nouns, 2 as : — 

1 Many prepositions, as we shall see, were once adverbs ; hence adverbs may 
modify them. Such phrases as those above are adverbial ; hence adverbs may modify 
them. 

2 Such nouns as journey, arrival, flight, and stay, in these and similar expres- 
sions, have lingering in them a verbal force ; hence adverbs may modify them. 

In "yours truly," yours =' your friend'; and yours truly ='your true friend.' 
The contained noun is unexpressed ; and, as Wrightson would say, its attribute true 
can appear only as an adverb truly. 



THE ADVERB 239 

" His journey thence was eventful " ; u His arrival there was in the 
nick of time"; u The soul in its flight upward'' 1 ; "My stay abroad 
was pleasant." 

5. Some adverbs are independent, as : — 

" There are evils to be overcome " ; "Now, that is hardly fair." 

6. Adverbs may be used as nouns/ as : — 

" Since when was this doctrine taught?" "A scholar seeks the 
why and the wherefore of everything " ; " Before now 1 '' ; "By then." 

7. Adverbs may connect clauses, as : — 

11 A true soldier goes where and when he is ordered." 

8. Some adverbs are interrogative, as : — 

" How, tohen, where t and ivhy is this to be done ? " 

DERIVATION OP ADVERBS 

We saw that adjectives are inflected in O.E. as nouns are. 

I. Some Adverbs are derived from Adjectives. — 1. From 
the O.E. genitive, with the ending -s, sometimes modified, 
as : — 

backwards, else, forwards, once, twice, unawares, etc. 



1 When, in "since when," = 'what time' ; now, in "before now," = ' this time'; 
and then, in "by then," = ' that time ' ; hence the when, now, and then are nouns, and 
in the objective. The makes nouns of why and wherefore in the sentence above. 



240 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

2. From the O.E. dative with the ending -e dropped, so 

that the adverb and the adjective are the same in form, 

as: — 

bright, clean, dear, deep, even, fair, fast, full, hard, high, ill, long, 
loud, near, right, slow, soft, still, wide, etc. 

3. From the O.E. accusative, with ending dropped, as : — 

all, enough, ere, homeward, upward, etc. 

4. By adding to an adjective the ending -ly, 1 from O.E. 
lic-e, an ending so common — added even to words already 
adverbs — that it is regarded as the normal adverbial end- 
ing, as : — 

ably, bitterly, certainly, frequently, hardly, lastly, scarcely, 
shortly, 2 etc. 

II. Some Adverbs come from Nouns. — 1. From the geni- 
tive, as : — 

always, betimes, needs, lengthways, now-a-days, 3 whilst, etc. 

2. From the dative, as : — 

piecemeal, whilom, 4 etc. 

1 Our like, as an independent word, and as adjective ending in godlike, godly, etc., 
is from the same O.E. adjective gellc, 'like.' Likely — like + like. Lic-Q is an 
instrumental case = in like manner ; ably = in an able manner. 

2 In England, shortly is often used as we use briefly. This use of it, in its old 
Chaucerian sense, is almost unknown on this side of the water. With us it means 
'soon,' 'presently,' or 'curtly.' 

3 This a, like the introductory a in abed, abroad, afar, ahead, amid, anon, 
apiece, asleep, away, and awry, is the O.E. on, 'in' or 'on.' The a in apace, 
apart, and perhaps in agog is the French a, the Latin ad. 

* Late and like as adjectives and as adverbs retain the -e ; seldom retains the 
adjective dative ending -um (om) ; and whilom, the noun ending. 






THE ADVERB 241 

3. From the accusative/ as : — 

meantime, midway, straightway, yesterday, etc. 

III. Some Adverbs come from O.E. Pronouns. — 1. Prom 
the third personal pronoun he : — 

hence, here, hither. 

2. From the demonstrative pronoun ftmt and ties : — 
the (as in the sooner the better), then, thence, there, thither, thus. 

3. From the interrogative pronoun hwa, hwcet: — 
how, what, 1 when, whence, where, whither, why. 

IV. Some Adverbs are compounded of Two Parts of 
Speech. — 1. Adjective and noun, as: — 

alway, meanwhile, midway, yesterday, etc. 

2. Adjective and adverb, as : — 
also, anywhere, as, 2 everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, etc. 

3. Preposition and adjective, as : — 

afar, afresh, anew, anon, amid, awry, 3 etc. 



1 What, meaning partly, as in " What with the weather and what with the diet, 
he fell sick." 

2 As, O.E. ealswd, is our also — a doublet of it — the al(=eal, 'all,') strength- 
ening so. 

3 We still use, without compounding, the preposition and the adjective ; as, at all, 
at best, for lost, for worse, in brief, in full, in future, in general, in particular, 
in short, in vain, of late, etc. There is here an evident ellipsis of the nouns. 

H. SCH. GRAM. 16 



242 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 

4. Preposition and noun, as : — 

abed, aboard, agog, ahead, apace, apart, apiece, asleep, away, 
besides, forsooth, overboard, perchance, to-day, to-morrow, etc. 

5. Adverb and adverb, as : — 

however, whenever, wherever, etc. 

6. Adverb and preposition, as : — 

forever, hereafter, hereby, herein, thereat, thereby, therefore, 
whereat, whereby, wherein, etc. 

7. Adverb and noun, as : — 

nanght, no, not, 1 nought, 1 etc. 



1 Not is an abbreviation of nought or naught ; and naught is from O.E. naioiht — 
ne + a + wiht — ' not a whit.' In English, as in other languages, a negative may be 
strengthened by a noun, as in "not a oit" "not & jot." Compare Lat. nihil — ne 
+ hilum — 'not a straw'; French ne pas, ne point, 'not a step,' 'not a point.' 
The added noun may even crowd out the real negative, and take upon itself the office 
of negation, ae in pas de tout, 'not at all.' A general linguistic fact is here illus- 
trated. 

"The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant n. In Saxon it 
existed as a word ne ; bat we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which 
enters into many words, as into no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never." — 
Earle. 

It may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in our language, negation is more frequently ex- 
pressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech — than by all other 
parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to 
say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not 
to be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what 
is said consists of denial — is taken up in telling, not what is true of things, but what is 
not true of them ; or in telling indirectly what is true of them. 

The adjective no is an abbreviation of none; the adverb no =ne + a . = 'not 
ever.' Yes is from gea + swa or from ged + sie (a subjunctive of the O.E. verb 
beon, to ' be '). If from the first pair, it means ' Yea so ' ; if from the second, 



THE ADVERB 243 

8. Many Parts of Speech, as : — 

altogether, nevertheless, notwithstanding, etc. 

Adverbial Phrases. — Colloquial speech and literature 
abound in expressions adverbial in force, each made up of 
two or more words, one of which is usually a preposition. 
In some of these, words are used in a figurative sense; 
some have become idioms — expressions peculiar to the 
language but often illogical in sense. 

A few of the more frequent adverbial phrases are given 
below. 1 

j * Yea, so be it.' No and yes, used in answering questions, are sometimes called 
independent adverbs. They seem to modify words omitted in the answer, but 
contained in the question ; as, " Did you see him ? " " No " = I did no {not) see him. 
"Will you go?" "Fes." The force of yes may be illustrated by substituting cer- 
tainly. " Will you go ? " ''''Certainly " = Certainly I will go, or I will certainly go. 
As no and yes represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called sentence- 
words. 

An obsolete distinction between yea and yes and between nay and no is perhaps 

worth recalling. In answer to such a question as, "Did he walk?" yea or nay was 

used ; in answer to " Did he not walk ? " yes or no. Tyndale's failure to observe this 

1 : l distinction is urged by Sir Thomas More as proof that Tyndale was incompetent to 

■j translate the Bible into English. 

1 Above all, after all, all in all, at a loss, at all, at all events, at any rate, at best, at 
heart, at fault, at first sight, at hand, at last, at least, at length, at most, at once, at 
one, at random, at that, at the best, at the most, at times, back and forth, by and by, 

1 by heart, by no means, by the bye, by the way, day by day, for a while, for all that, for 

• certain, for example, for good, for granted, for instance, for long, for lost, for once, for 
that matter, for the most part, for the present, for the time, from time to time, hand 
in hand, here and there, in a word, in brief, in general, in fact, in full, in future, in other 
words, in part, in particular, in short, in spite of, in the first place, in the main, in 
truth, in vain, in view-, more and more, more or less, no doubt, no matter, none the 
less, of a truth, of course, on hand, on foot, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the 
other hand, on the whole, once for all, once in a while, one by one, over and above, side 
by side, step by step, to and fro, to the full, under the circumstances, under way. 



244 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

Proscribed Adverbial Locutions. — Some critics, in disregard of 
Professor Lounsbury's admirable dictum, " Purism is not purity," 
condemn such adverbs and adverb phrases as these : — 

As (after a negative), at all, at best, at length ( = 'at last'), /row 
thence, from whence, here (after verbs of motion), just (to express 
time), quite (== 'very'), so (after an affirmative), there (after verbs of 
motion), and whether or no (instead of not). 1 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adverbs — Uses, Common and 
Exceptional, Derivation. Adverb Phrases. Proscribed Adverb 
Locutions. 

Questions. — Why called adverbs? What besides verbs do they 
modify ? Adverbs preeminently what ? Their effect upon the scope 
of the words they modify ? Illustrate. Why may adverbs modify 
prepositions? Why nouns like journey, stay, flight, etc.? Why 
phrases ? Clauses ? Illustrate, and account for, their use as nouns. 
From what 0. E. cases of adjectives are adverbs derived ? The com- 

1 As after a negative is less common than so ; so after an affirmative is less common 
than as; from thence and from whence are not so often seen as thence and whence; 
here and there are less frequent with verbs of motion than are hither and thither ; and 
whether or not is found oftener than whether or no. Still these proscribed expres- 
sions occur too frequently to be put under ban. 

At all may be scooped up by the handful ; at best is oftener used than the correla- 
tive phrase, at the best; at length, meaning 'at \ast,\just as an adverb of time, and 
quite, in the sense of 'very,' appear on almost every page of literature. 

As and so, after negatives, connote different ideas. "In 'John is not as tall as 
James,' there is no implication that the speaker regards either John or James as tall; 
there is merely a comparison of their heights. But, if one says, ' John is not so tall as 
James,' though the so is not emphasized, there is understood usually to be a reference, 
more or less distinct, to something uncommon in the height of James, as compared 
with that of other men, or of other boys of his age."— Standard Dictionary. 



THE ADVERB 245 

mon adverb ending? Derived from what? The om in seldom and 
whilom from what ? From what cases of nouns are adverbs derived ? 
Illustrate. From what classes of pronouns? Illustrate. Some ad- 
verbs are what parts of speech coupled ? Illustrate. What is the 
general negative seen in not ? What is the noun ? Give other nega- 
tives containing nouns. What may the noun do to the negative in 
such combination ? The component parts of no and yes f What are 
these two sometimes called ? Some of the more common adverb 
phrases ? Lounsbury's admirable dictum ? 

Exercises. — Give the list of adverbs that have the same form as 
adjectives. The lists of adverbs derived from the pronouns, O.E., 
he, ficet, dcs, hwa, and hivcet. The uses of adverbs and adverb phrases 
proscribed by purists, but approved by usage. The distinction made 
by the Standard Dictionary between " John is not as tall as James," 
and u John is not so tall as James.' ' 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE ADVERB — {Co ntinued) 
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS AND ADVERB PHRASES 

I. Classified according to their Office. — Some adverbs and 
adverb phrases perform the single office of modifying verbs, 
adjectives, or adverbs. These are called Simple Adverbs. 
The great mass of adverbs and adverb phrases fall into 
this class. 

But just as participles have two natures and offices, a 
verbal and an adjectival; as nounal verbs have two, a 
verbal and a nounal; as relative pronouns have two, 
a nounal and a conjunctive ; — so some adverbs and adverb 
phrases have two, an adverbial and a conjunctive. These 
are called Conjunctive Adverbs and Adverb Phrases. 

The Conjunctive Adverbs and Phrases connecting Coordinate 

Clauses are 

accordingly, also, besides, consequently, else, furthermore, hence, 
however, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, notwithstanding, now, on 
the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, so, still, then, thence, yet. 

The Conjunctive Adverbs connecting Subordinate Clauses l to 
Principal are 

1 Mason impliedly restricts the modifying 1 force of a conjunctive adverb to the verb, 
adjective, or adverb in its own clause. Accordingly, also, hence, now, so, still, 
yet, etc. connecting coordinate clauses are restricted as Mason asserts. But (1) the 

246 



THE ADVERB 247 

after, as, before, ere, how, however, since, than, that, the — the, 
till, until, when, whence, whenever, where, whereby, wherein, wher- 
ever, while, whilst, and why. 



II. Classified according to their Meaning. — Classified thus, 
adverbs are easily grouped under time, place, degree, man- 
ner, and cause. We give only a few common illustrations 
of each class. 



1. Adverbs of Time. —Present, forthwith, immediately, instantly, 
J now, to-day. 

Past, ago, already, before, heretofore, hitherto, lately, since, then, 
yesterday. 

Future, afterwards, by and by, directly, 1 hereafter, henceforth, 
3' soon, to-morrow. 

Duration, always, ever, incessantly, never, perpetually, still, 
while. 

Frequency, again, daily, frequently, often, once, periodically, 
rarely, seldom, sometimes. 

2. Adverbs of Place. — Rest in, above, below, elsewhere, here, 
J near, there, where, yonder. 

Motion from, away, back, hence, thence, whence. 

Motion towards, forward, hither, onward, thither, whither. 

3. Adverbs of Degree, all, almost, as, as — as, easily, enough, far, 



conjunctive adverbs ichen, where, wherein, whereby, and why, when introducing 
adjective clauses and having the office of relative pronouns, and (2) conjunctive adverbs, 
like as, ere, since, than, when, connecting subordinate clauses of time, place, degree, 
and manner to principal clauses, modify or describe or limit words in those clauses 
as well as words in their own. 

1 Directly = ' as soon as,' is not employed by American writers or speakers. But 
very many English authors would say with Newman, "Directly they are loved for 
their own sake, they return to their original dust." 



248 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

hardly, 1 just, least, less, little, more, most, much, nearly, only, per- 
fectly, quite, scarcely, so, 2 than, 3 the — the, too, very. 4 

4. Adverbs of Manner, as, as — so, fast, like, long, no, not, so, 2 
thus, well, and most adverbs in -ly. 

5. Adverbs of Cause, consequently, hence, therefore, thus, whence, 
wherefore, why. 

Two Negative Adverbs in the Same Assertion. — In O.E. and 
in M.E., two, or more than two, negative adverbs in the 
same assertion strengthen 5 the negation; in Mn.E. two 



1 English writers often use hardly in the sense of harshly, with severity ; as, 
" The prisoner was hardly treated." Americans use it in the sense of scarcely, with 
difficulty ; as, " He was hardly able to walk." 

2 So, as an adverb of degree, more frequently as an adverb of manner, is often a com- 
pendious substitute for a phrase or a clause ; as, " Half a dozen or so " ; " There was 
no one to enforce the law and enforce order, since the Emperor was too weak to do 
so " ; " It is not yet all it might be or all it should be, but we mean to make it so." 

3 The conjunctive force of than is now prominent, but than is from then. "He is 
taller than I " = " He is taller then (= next to him) am I," Whitney says. Mason and 
West say that than (O.E. panne) originally meant when; and that therefore "He is 
taller than I " = "He is taller when I am tall." Mason adds that to regard than as 
equivalent to then "inverts the logical order of the ideas, making the comparative 
degree itself the standard of comparison." 

4 Very modifies adjectives, participles used as adjectives, and adverbs, but not 
verbs. Some think that such expressions as, " He is very pleased " are creeping into 
favor ; but they are not in general use, not even in occasional use, among the best 
English and American writers. 

6 The stock illustration from Chaucer is, " He never e yit no vileinye ne sayde in all 
his lyf unto no maner wight." The change is credited to the influence of the Latin 
construction — favored by Milton and the Latinists of his day. 

In a compound assertion, usage is about equally divided on this point : whether to 
use nor, and thus repea* the negation in the preceding not, no, or other negative, or to 
employ or, and allow the not, no, or other word, to make all parts of the assertion 
negative. We have the best of authority for both locutions ; as, " Our healing is not in 
the storm or in the whirlwind " ; "It is not in monarchies or aristocracies or democ- 
racies " ; "They had no horses nor oxen nor carts" ; "The world will very Utile 






THE ADVERB 249 






negatives in the same assertion neutralize each other and 
leave the assertion affirmative, as : — 

u This is not 2in\ike\y " ; " Unbelief is not the supreme end sought." 

Comparison of Adverbs. — Adverbs, like adjectives, have 
a single modification, — comparison, — though, from their 
nature, few except those of degree and manner receive it. 
Of the common adverbs of time and of place that are com- 
pared, we may mention 

frequently, lately, often, rarely, seldom, soon, and far and near. 



Some adverbs, like often and soon, and those that are 

1 derived from adjectives and are the same in form (see 

[ p. 240, I. 2), take the -er and -est to denote increase; but 

most of those subject to comparison prefix more and most 

to denote this. All of them, like adjectives, prefix less and 

; least to express diminution. 

Adverbs Irregular in Comparison. — Some adverbs, like 

adjectives, form degrees from different stems ; there is one, 

j at least, whose positive and superlative are now obsolete; 

i and there are some whose endings of comparison are pecul- 

: iar. These inheritances from O.E. are here grouped : — 



note, nor long remember, what we say here." Possibly the negation is strengthened 
by the repetition. 

Of course, nor must be used after neither, as in " Who neither turned nor looked 
at him nor spoke. " 



250 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



COMP. 



badly, \ 
ill, | 


worse, 


worst. 


far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


forth, 


further, 


furthest. 



POS. 


COMP. 


SUPER. 


little, 


less, 


least. 


much, 


more, 


most. 


> 


rather, 1 


. 


well, 


better, 


best. 



Adverbs, and their Number and Place in Sentences. — The 

adverbs and adverb phrases used (1) should fitly 2 express 
the modification intended; (2) should be few 3 rather than 
many ; and (3) should be so placed 4 that no reasonable 
doubt can arise as to what they were meant to modify — 
placed, consequently, as near as possible to the words they 
modify, regard being had to euphony and to the rights of 
other words. 

Seldom should an adverb stand between to 5 and its 
infinitive. 



1 Bather in the sense of someivhat is not a comparative in force. 

2 Adverbs that fill the mouth or the ear, but are meaningless because general and 
indefinite, easily impose upon the speaker or writer. Shots that do not hit the mark 
6well the roar but waste the ammunition. 

8 Facility in the use of adverbs is not always felicity. Better to leave the appetite 
unsatisfied than to clog it. If one is to lean either way, let it be to the side of paucity. 

* The parts of a sentence should not be disjointed or misjointed, but should cohere — 
each part attached to that to which it belongs. The difficulty of proper position is great 
— only is seldom in place, and phrases are proverbial stragglers. 

The following misplaced adverbs and adverb (and adjective) phrases illustrate the 
point: "There have been things they called comic operas by the dozen " ; "I should 
like to come very much " ; " He finds himself in possession only of a jumbled 
collection of synonyms " ; " Every schoolboy . . . has known who Brutus was any 
tim,e these fifteen hundred years " ; " An effect of which the loss would make the 
English language ^oorer 1 ' ; " More effective than that of a perhaps cleverer man." 

5 " Cleft or split infinitives " — infinitives separated by adverbs from their to — are 
found in English all the way down ; FitzEdward Hall and others have shown this 
But there is no doubt that usage is against adverbs' being thus sandwiched. Our 



THE ADVERB 251 

Whether Adverb or Adjective. — It is asked whether^ after 

appear, arrive, come, feel, grow, hang, keep, look, shine, sit, 

smell, stand, taste, etc., one should use 1 an adverb or an 

adjective. The only guide seems to be this : If the word 

is to modify the subject, 2 use an adjective; if to modify the 

verb, an adverb. 

This rule forces one to determine which office the word is to have 3 
when used with such verbs. 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adverbs Classified according to 
Office and Meaning. Comparison of Adverbs. Number and Place in 
Sentences. When an Adjective to be Used and when an Adverb. 

best writers seldom place adverbs there ; and only when there is a felicitous coherence 
of adverb and verb, like that of a happy compound. 

" Do not use the split infinitive unless you have a valid reason for it. Old examples 
can be quoted in some numbers, yet it never was a genuine colloquialism, but only an 
artificial scholasm." — Earle. 

Whether to place the adverb before the to or after the infinitive is a question to be 
settled by clearness, by regard for the right to position other words have, and by the ear. 

1 Certain adverbs and adjectives, see p. 240, I. 2, are alike in form. What to call 
them in parsing, often troubles one when they stand after the verbs above. 

2 We saw, foot-note 2, p. 238, that a noun with a verb lingering in it may be modi- 
fied by an adverb. We are speaking now of nouns with special verbs. 

3 To aid in determining this, we may say that when the intransitive verbs appear, 
arrive, come, grow, look, sit, stand, etc. — and feel, hang, keep, shine, smell, taste, 
etc. used intransitively — express not so much action as state, and state with the 
general meaning of being or seeming or becoming, the word to be used should modify 
the subject, be an adjective; if action is uppermost in the verb, the word should 
modify the verb, be an adverb. These sentences from the Standard Dictionary 
illustrate both points : — 

"The decision appears (apparently is) unjust ",* "The ship appeared (came into 
view) suddenly " ; and " The physician felt the pulse carefully (in a careful manner), 
and observed that the patient's hand felt cold (was cold to the touch)." 



252 EIOR school QRAMMAE 

Questions. -What are simple adverbs P Conjunctive adverbs and 
phrases? Wluili subdivisions <>i" other parts of speeoh have double 
oflices? What do conjunctive adverbs connect? Wherein Mason 
wrong, by Implication at Least P Wherein right? Adverbs <»r time 
and plaoe subdivisible Into what? Directly and hardly used how 
in England? So a compendious substitute tor what? Very may 
modify what? May not modify what? in O.B. and M.E., two 
or more negatives do what P in Mn.E., what? Usage says what re- 
specting nor to repeat the negative of :i preceding not or not Some. 
adverbs whose comparative and superlative are not Erom the positive. 
stem; some whose comparative and superlative endings are peculiar j 

one used only in the eoinp.i.mii ve ? What is s;iid of the Choi06 ol 

adverbs? Of the number used P Theirplaceln thesentence? What 
adverb often out of place? What adverb phrases? An adverb 

should seldom he phi.eed where? What does ii:;;rr say of the u deft 

Infinitive"? What governs the placingof the adverb modifying the 
Infinitive? After what verbs may there bo doubt whether t<> use 
adjectives <>■• adverbs? What Is to guide? What may aid In de- 
termining the office of the word to be used? What words whose 
syntax may trouble us in parsing? 

Exercises. — Write some sentences, eaoh with a clause of plaoe or 
time or degree or manner, Introduced i>y an adverb modifying words 
in both olauses. Some with a negative followed by or, and some 
with a negative strengthened by nor» Some Illustrating the varied 

placing of the adverb with the infinitive. Correct the faults of posi- 
tion in loot note I, p. B50. Write sentences where theadjeotive Ls the 
proper word after appear^ come, /'■<■/, grow^ look, shine, smell, and 

taste I Mini some where Uie ;idverb is I. he proper word after these 

verbs. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE PREPOSITION 

Derivation and Name. »M08t of the English preposition:; 
worn earlier adverbs. 1 They got their name from l>ein# 

placed before one of the words whose relations they expressed. 

Their Original Office. Stems, like those of pronoun:;, were 

used (1) to express the relations existing between tin-. 

actions 9 indicated by verbs and the thin",;; denoted by 
nouns; used (2) to make clearer the relations between things 
and qualities of things on the one, hand, and things on the 

other. 

ti in Sanskrit, the oldest extant writing of the Cndo Europeans, these 
stems are found (1) as Independent word::, (2) as prefixes of verbs, 

ami (■'>) as (;aH<;-emliii": ; «>!' ik.iih; CI; ami (2) calkd preposition,*, 

and (8) case endings. When the Independent words express the rela 
i,i ins of a verb, adjective, or adverb, iii a general way, without a limit 
in", ooun, they are called adverbi. 

ti in Sanskrit there are twenty-one prepositional stems which some 
times combine with verbs, nine which never combine, and many 



1 M ; 1 1 1 ;, prtpOfltiOM ■>!'■ 'ill u. ''I .i :i'l.«il,, <■ •[»< ■<'i:i.lly whmi not. followed \>y 
noun:.. 

i That prepositions uiisted In oxpropwlng rohiHoriH relAtlom registered In the 

n-line . ,,l' noun :, i:t:,r.-n in |,||<- |';i<| llml. vvi III <l i 0<i «■ n I. v< i I. . I lw UI16 |»m-|.o i 

■ m followed i>y Doom with different omc ending 
258 



254 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

adverbial forms with case-endings, which are used as prepositions." 
— F. A. March. 

Classification. — The classification of prepositions is into 
Simple and Compound. 

1. Simple. — The simple prepositions — all in O.E., though 
till was borrowed from the Norse — are 

after, at, by, ere, for (fore), from, in, of (off), on, over, through, 
till, to, under, up, and with. 

II. Compound. — 1. Prepositions with O.E. Adverb Prefixes 
and Suffixes. The adverb prefixes are 

in, un, 'unto,' and up. 

The suffixed adverbs are 

seftan, ' after,' foran, ' fore,' geond, 'across,' hindan, i after,' innan, 
4 in,' neoftan, ' below,' titan, 'upward,' titan or tit, ' out,' and weard, 
4 tendency to.' 

The simple prepositions a, 'on/ be, 'by/ on, through, till, 
to, under, and with combine with the suffixes and prefixes 
above to form the prepositions, 

abaft, 1 afore, before, beyond, behind, into, within, beneath, under- 
neath, above, 1 about, 1 but, throughout, without, until, unto, upon, 
toward, and towards. 

2. Prepositions with O.E. Noun or Adjective Suffixes. — The 

noun and adjective suffixes are 

1 The prepositions tt, ' on,' and be, ' by,' are found in abaft and about and above. 









THE PREPOSITION 255 

board, croix, 'cross,' dun, 'hill,' gean, 'contrary to,' gemang, 
'crowd,' lang, 'long,' louh, 'low,' middan, 'middle,' round, slant, 
stride, sld, 'side,' tweon and tweoh, 'double,' ftain, 'that,' tfweorh, 
' crooked.' 

The simple prepositions a, i on/ a, ' of V or i off/ a, ' over 
against/ be, i by/ combine with the suffixes above to form 
the prepositions, 

aboard, across, adown 1 (down), against, among and amongst, 
along, 1 below, amid and amidst, around (round), aslant, astride, 
beside and besides, between and betwixt, and athwart. Since = sr5, 
' after,' and $am. 

Relations expressed by Case-endings. — The objects first 
known were external, and the knowledge of them was 
largely knowledge of their space relations. The relations 
expressed most frequently in case-endings, except the 
nominative, the dative, — and the genitive in part, — were 
no doubt space relations. 



1 The a in adown is the a ' of ' ; that in along is a in Latin ante. 
Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, past, pending, re- 
i garding, respecting, saving, and touching are still participles in form and sometimes 
i are such in use. But often the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they 
I express mere relations. 

Except and save, in such a sentence as, "All except (or save) him were lost," 
are usually classed with prepositions. 

The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of {by cause of), 
from among, from between, from tinder, instead of (in stead of), out of, over 
against, and round about may be called compound prepositions. But from in these 
compounds; as, "He crawled from under the ruins," really introduces a phrase 
the principal term of which is the phrase that foWows from. 



256 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

The locative case-ending signified in a place ; the dative, inclination 
toward something in space — the personal relation between a giver and 
a receiver the prevailing one ; the ablative, motion from a place ; the 
accusative, reaching an object in space ; and the instrumental, personal 
relation between an intelligent actor and his instrument, adjacency or 
accompaniment in space. 

As man has extended his sphere of thought and action, the mental 
and personal relations have come to be expressed most frequently, and 
the spatial have become less prominent. The dative prevailingly ex- 
presses purpose or result rather than inclination toward ; the ablative, 
origin, cause, agency, rather than movement from ; the instrumental, 
means and manner rather than accompaniment. 

Relations expressed by Prepositions. — Stating definitely 
and emphatically particular relations, of the class expressed 
by case-endings, prepositions gradually assumed the offices 1 
of such endings and so displaced these inflections. In 
English, the displacement is almost total. 

The development of prepositions in meaning and in office 
may be sought, then, along lines traceable in the develop- 
ment of case-endings. Almost all prepositions, whether 
simple or compound, like case-endings, originally expressed 
space relations. By metaphor and other figurative exten- 
sion, these prepositions have been stretched to express rela- 
tions of time, cause, manner, etc., and these in all their 
minute subdivisions and distinctions. We are now pre- 
pared for the 

i Wrightson says, "Called in at first merely to assist the failing cases, the preposi- 
tions have so nearly replaced them that we may speak of prepositions as case equiv- 
alents." 



THE PREPOSITION 257 

Definition. — A Preposition is a word that introduces a 
phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its prin- 
cipal word to the word modified, 

It may be instructive to see some of the extensions of 
meaning that a few prepositions have added to their 
original space significations. We do not know the order 
of these extensions. 

After. — Place Subsequent, U B stands after A"; Pursuit, "He 
strayed after a squirrel " ; Time Subsequent, " The evil that men do 
lives after them " ; Aim, " Strive after clearness" ; Imitation, "Prints 
after the old masters"; Accord, "A man after my own heart"; 
Reference, " He had no heart to ask after any more friends" ; Con- 
cession, " After all, he died poor " ; Cause, " After the recognition he 
was happy." 

At. — Dccupancy of place, " At the center " ; Nearness, " A peri at 
the gate" ; Motion toward, "The dog sprang at the man"; Time, 
"He will go at ten" ; Occasion, "At the word he rose" ; Degree, 
"At least " ; State, " At peace " ; Price, " Papers at a cent apiece " ; 
Accord, ' ' By land or by water, at your choice ' ' ; Manner, ' ' He spoke 
at a venture " ; Instrument, " He lost money at cards " ; Cause, " At 
thy rebuke they fled. ' ' 

By. — Proximity, " He dwells by the bridge " ; Place where, 
"Moving accidents by flood and by field"; Via, "We went to 
Buffalo by Albany" ; Passing without touching, "They pass by me 
as the idle wind " ; Time, " 'Twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild " 
Agent, "A novel by Scott"; Manner, "They marched by twos" 
Adjuration, "But by the shades beneath us and by the gods above " 
Accord, "Noon by the north clock, noon by the east" ; Instrument, 
"Died by the sword"; Measure, "Older by fifteen years"; Per- 
mission, " By your gracious patience I will speak " ; Means, " Grows 
by what it feeds on " ; Cause, " By whom we live and move and have 
our being." 

H. SCH. GRAM. 17 



258 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

For (fore). — Movement toward, u He sailed for Europe " ; Dura- 
tion, U A prisoner for life" ; Behalf of, "I bring fresh showers for 
the thirsting flowers" ; Exchange, " He would give all he had for 
life" ; Substitution, u Will he for a fish give him a serpent?" Pur- 
pose, " These things are written for our instruction"; Concession, 
" For all that, it is very dark here " ; Respect to, " The sweetest flower 
for scent that blows" ; Attribute, " Feet that might have served for 
shovels" ; Cause, " They cannot see the end for the process." 

From. — Separation, " Anything so overdone is from the purpose 
of playing " ; Movement away, " He went from door to door" ; Time, 
44 From my youth up " ; Reason, " Kings will be tyrants from policy 
when subjects are rebels from principle"; Means, U I cannot judge 
the liquor from the lees " ; Source, " Religions are obsolete when lives 
do not proceed from them " ; Cause, u Brave from habit." 

In. — Inclusion, "In the room"; Duration, "In a lifetime"; 
Material, "Paid in gold " ; Occasion, "Greatly to find quarrel in a 
straw when honor's at the stake" ; Manner, "I said in my haste all 
men are liars"; Means, "In the tranquil grazing of cattle I am 
carried back to my youth"; Conformity with, "In my judgment 
this cannot last" ; Respect to, "First in war and first in peace" ; 
Authority, " Against this bill I protest in the name of the Irish 
people" ; Reference, "I don't believe in principle, but oh ! I do in 
interest." 

Of (off). — Distance, "He stopped short of the goal"; Quality, 
44 The man of wisdom is the man of years" ; Source, ''Defects of 
doubt and taints of blood " ; Material, " A bridge of ice " ; Identity, 
44 The kingdom of Kent " ; Possession, " The house of Shakespeare " ; 
Agency, " Loved of none" ; Respect to, "The dread of common- 
place has lain heavily on Tennyson" ; Connection, "The top of the 
hill"; Partition, "One of the books"; Cause, "He died of con- 
sumption." 

On. — Superposition, "He lay on the floor"; Direction, "The 
house fronts on the river"; Pursuit, "They are on his tracks". 
Nearness, " The fleet is on the French coast " ; Motion to, " And they 



THE PREPOSITION 259 

fell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine"; Time, " On that fateful 
day of Waterloo" ; Respect to, "On their own merits modest men 
are dumb" ; Reason, " He prided himself on his good looks" ; State, 
11 Fickle reason is like a drunken man ow horseback" ; Adjuration, 
"Tell me on thy life"; Reference, "A lecture on Burke " ; Cause, 
" On his father's death he became insane." 

Over. — Position above, "Ample folds as they float over the sea 
and over the land" ; Motion above and across, " Over earth and ocean, 
with gentle motion, this pilot is guiding me" ; Motion on and across, 
"The trail of the serpent is over them all" ; Measure, " Over 10,000 
bushels"; Duration, " Ice kept over summer"; Superiority, "They 
passed it over the veto"; Means, "lie wearied himself over his 
books" ; Cause, " He grieved over her death." 

Through. — Passage from limit to limit, "He went through the 
tunnel"; Duration, "She lived through the year"; Means, "The 
building is lighted through the dome " ; Agency, " He casteth 
out devils through Beelzebub"; Cause, "He died through over- 
exertion." 

To. — Movement reaching its object, "If the hill will not come to 
Mahomet, Mahomet will go to the hill" ; Direction toward, "Spires 
whose silent fingers point to heaven " ; Degree, " Brave to temerity " ; 
Extent, " To the number of thirty " ; Accord, " Nerves that had long 
been strong to the music of battle" ; Accompaniment, "We dance 
to music " ; Addition, " For those of old, and the late dignities heaped 
up to them " ; Comparison, " All that tread the globe are but a hand- 
ful to the tribes that slumber in its bosom" ; Possession, "It is an 
attribute to God himself " ; Purpose, " He went to see his mother." 

It is seen that there are myriad relations to be expressed 
in speech. There are but few cases in any synthetic lan- 
guage to express these. By the use of these relational 
words, the prepositions, an analytic tongue like ours be- 
comes exact, sjjecific, and definite, and can express finer 



260 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



ch 



distinctions of thought than can a synthetic language which 
depends upon cases for this service. 1 

Proscribed Prepositional Locutions. — We are forbidden to use (1) 
between, 2 with more than two things ; (2) around, 3 with verbs of 
motion; (3) o/, 4 after all, both, whole; (4) differ with, 5 rather than 
differ from ; and (5) we are enjoined not to end 6 a sentence with a 
preposition. 

1 " As prepositions present the relation from the verb side and case-endings from the 
noun side, a goodly number of both, as in Sanskrit and Greek, would seem to promise 
most ; but the distinctions become too fine, and the machinery too complex, for folk- 
speech or world-speech. 1 ' — F. A. March. 

2 "We observe that between is not restricted to two." —Imperial Dictionary. 
"In all senses between has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than 
two. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many sur- 
rounding things severally and individually — among expressing a relation to them 
collectively and vaguely ; we should not say, ' The choice lies among the three candi- 
dates,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'" — The New 
English Dictionary. 

We have collected hundreds of sentences like this from Peile : " Etymologically 
there is no difference between adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions " — sentences 
in which between is used by good writers with three or more. But guard against such 
expressions as, " between each page " ; "a choice between one of several." 

3 After verbs of motion around is used almost as often as round. 

4 Such expressions as, "All of the men," "Both of the boys," " The whole of the 
farm," are not as common as "All the men," "Both the boys" " The whole farm"; 
but they are found by scores in almost every author. 

5 "Differ with is . . . reserved for 'have a difference with,' expressing conflicting 
opinion to. Say, ' Washington differed from Hamilton in temperament, but he did 
not differ with him in political theory.' " — Standard Dictionary. 

6 " A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence with," we are told. 

Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Pro- 
fessor Austin Phelps says, " A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word " ; and 
he quotes a burst of feeling from Eufus Choate which ends thus : " Never, so long as 
there is left of Plymouth Kock a piece large enough to make a gunflint of I" " This," 
Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English." He adds, "The old Scotch 
interrogative? 'What /or?' is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech." 
Even the to of the infinitive phrase frequently ends a colloquial sentence. 



THE PREPOSITION 261 

The Use of Prepositions. — Care should be taken l (1) in 
the choice of prepositions, since they affect large fragments 
of sentences — phrases simple, compound, and complex ; 

(2) though apt, they should not be used needlessly; 2 and 

(3) should not be omitted 3 when needed. 

Prepositions used as Adverbs. — When the preposition 



1 To illustrate — beside = by the side of; besides = in addition to, as in " Besides 
giving him money, I stood beside him in his sickness." 

In denotes rest or motion in one place or condition ; into, change from one to 
another ; as, " When one is outside of a place he may get into it, but he cannot do 
anything in it until he has got into it." 

In, not at, before names of countries, or of villages looked on as territory ; at before 
names of cities regarded as points ; as, " We landed at New York, in the United 
States " ; "We live in HoboTcen" 

When the motion is to the upper surface of an object above, upon, not on, is used ; 
as, " The cat jumped upon his shoulder." 

Not " He fell onto or on to the rocks," but " He fell on or upon the rocks." 

'* We compare one thing with another to note agreement or difference ; we compare 
one thing to another which we believe it to resemble." — Standard Dictionary* 

Not "different to" "in respect of" "in regard of"; but "different from," "in 
respect to" "in regard to" — in American usage, at least. 

2 At, for, in, of, and to are needless here: "I graduated at 18 years old"; "A 
son of five years of age" ; "He lives near to the church" ; "Where are you going 
to?" " It is to you to whom they owe this " ; " More than you think for " ; " Keep off 
of the grass " ; " In so far as he can, he will." 

3 Of is needed in (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5) below ; in, in (6) ; from, in (7) and (8) ; 
and at, in (9): (1) "He remained outside the house" ; (2) "The tree is inside the 
fence" ; (3) "It is the size of an egg" ; (4) "What use is this to him ?" (5) " I am 
unworthy your regard " ; (6) " There is no use going home " ; (7) " He was prevented 
going " ; (8) " He was banished the country " ; (9) " They laughed at what they smiled 
before." 

Speaking generally, a preposition should be used when it will make the thought 
clearer ; hence it should be repeated before successive adjectives, nouns, and infinitives 
when the qualities or objects or acts are to be kept distinct and coordinate, as in, " Both 
of kindred and of alien blood " ; " The rule holds in literature and in life" ; "With 
men and with money " ; "I wish to see and to hear you." 



262 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAE 






follows a verb or a term retaining a verb force, and does 
not itself introduce a phrase containing a noun or pronoun, 
the word may be regarded as an adverb, as : — 

"He rode past" ; "Looking beyond, he saw the hills"; "The 
climb up was painful " ; " The growth above was abnormal." 

But, if not preceded by a term that an adverb can modify, 
and not itself introducing a full phrase, we may supply the 
omitted noun or pronoun, and regard the word as a 
preposition, as : — 

"■The sky above" {us); "The earth beneath" (our feet) ; "The 
river beyond" (th&t field) ; " The room within " (the house). 



SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Prepositions — Simple and 
Compound. Relations expressed by Case-endings, by Prepositions. 
Extension of Meaning of Prepositions. Proscribed Prepositional 
Locutions. 

Questions. — Prepositions originally what ? Their name from 
what ? Their original office, what ? Name the simple prepositions in 
English. The O.E. adverb prefixes, what ? The O.E. adverb suffixes, 
what ? What prepositions combine with these, and form what ? The 
O.E. noun and adjective suffixes, what ? What prepositions combine 
with these, and form what ? What participles now used as preposi- 
tions ? What phrases now compound prepositions ? What objects 
first known ? Knowledge of these largely of what ? The relations 
expressed by case-endings largely what originally ? The several case- 
endings significant originally each of what space relation ? Gradually 






THE PREPOSITION 263 

they came to signify what relations developed out of space relations ? 
How came prepositions to displace the oblique case-inflections ? In 
what language is the displacement almost complete ? Wrightson says 
we may call prepositions what ? Along what lines may the develop- 
ment of prepositions be sought ? What has extended prepositions to 
express relations of time, cause, manner, etc., etc.? Definition of 
prepositions ? By the use of prepositions analytic languages may do 
what ? What use of (1) between, (2) around after verbs of motion, 
(3) of after all, both, whole, is proscribed? What do the purists say 
of differ with, and of a preposition ending a sentence? What has 
usage to say on these points ? In using prepositions, care should be 
exercised in what three respects ? Illustrate. When should preposi- 
tions be repeated ? When do prepositions become adverbs ? 

Exercises. — With after, at, by, far, from, in, of, on, over, through, 
and to, illustrate some of the more important extensions of preposi- 
tions in use. Illustrate the proscribed prepositional locutions and 
defend them. In sentences of your own illustrate the fine distinctions 
between besides and beside, in and into, in and at, on and upon, with 
and to. Illustrate the need of repeating the prepositions. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE CONJUNCTION 

The parts of a sentence that unite to form compounds are 
(1) individual words, and groups of words called (2) phrases 
and (3) clauses. The parts that are complex are (1) phrases 
and (2) clauses. 

The compound and the complex parts require connecting. 
Conjunctions, which connect them, are derived from other 
parts of speech — largely from prepositions. 

Definition. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, 1 phrases, and clauses. 2 

All conjunctions are connectives, but not all connectives 
are conjunctions ; in addition to their office as adverbs and 
pronouns, conjunctive adverbs 3 and relative pronouns con- 
nect. At least, then, three parts of speech connect, but only 
conjunctions merely connect. 

The connectives that are conjunctions are 



x And, as, as well as, but, and or, in such offices as they have in " John and James 
are brothers"; "Cromwell's rule as Protector began in 1653"; " He as well as I 
heard it;" "He was poor but prospering"; " Mahomet or Mohammed died in 632," 
connect individual words — and more frequently than the others. 

2 In continuous discourse sentences and even paragraphs are connected — by and 
and but chiefly. 

8 Conjunctive adverbial phrases, also ; the relative which, used as adjective, also. 

264 



THE CONJUNCTION 265 

albeit, although (though), and, as well as, because, both — and, but, 
except, 1 for, if, in case that, in order that, lest, nor, on condition 
that, or, either — or, neither — nor, so that, provided, provided that, 
unless, whereas, whether. 

tThe connectives that are conjunctive adverbs are 
accordingly, after, also, before, besides, consequently, else, ere, 
furthermore, hence, how, however, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, 
notwithstanding, now, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, 
so, still, than, then, therefore, till, until, when, whence, whenever, 
where, wherever, whereby, wherein, whilst, why, yet. 

The connectives that are relative pronouns are 

what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever. 

The connectives that are conjunctions and connective 

, adverbs are 

as, since, while. 

The connective that is a conjunction, a conjunctive adverb, 

and a relative pronoun is 

that. 

All connectives are (1) coordinate, 2 joining parts of equal 
rank ; or (2) subordinate, joining parts of unequal rank — 
i clauses 3 fully expressed or elliptical. 

1 Many conjunctives and conjunctive adverbs — but, except, for, before, etc. — are 
' prepositions also. Their transition into connectives is said to have been caused by the 

omission of that, which in O.E. followed them when introducing clauses. The drop- 
ping of that devolved its office upon the prepositions and made them connectives. 

2 This division of connectives into coordinate and subordinate is fundamental. It 
concerns the mutual relation of the thoughts contained in clauses. 

3 Two clauses of unequal rank are joined by a subordinate connective ; two clauses 
independent or equally dependent, by a coordinate connective. 



266 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

1. Coordinate connectives. 1 — 1. Copulative. (1) The copu- 
lative conjunctions are 

and, both — and, as well as. 

The copulative conjunctive adverbs are 

accordingly, also, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, more- 
over, now, so, then, therefore, thereupon, wherefore, whereupon. 

2. Adversative. — (1) The adversative conjunctions are 

but, whereas. 

(2) The adversative conjunctive adverbs are 

however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the 
other hand, still, yet. 

3. Alternative. — (1) The alternative conjunctions are 

neither, nor, or, either — or, neither — nor. 

1 The division of coordinate connectives into (1) copulative — joining parts in the 
same line of thought; (2) adversative — joining parts contrasted in meaning; and (3) 
alternative — joining parts so as to offer a choice, is helpful, though less so than 
the division of all connectives into coordinate and subordinate. It concerns the mutual 
relation, not of all clauses, but of clauses (1) independent or (2) equally dependent. 

Some copulative connectives join clauses that sustain to each other more than the 
relation of mere agreement in thought ; the second is (1) a sequence from the first, 
(2) a consequence of it, or (3) a result. 

The sequential clause, according to Wrightson, " in some indefinite way follows 
on something just said " ; as, " The father promised, whereupon she grew cheerful." 

The consequential clauses " state the logical conclusion from something just said >J ; 
as, " The ice has melted, therefore we cannot skate.'''' 

The resultant clause "states the accidental outcome" of something just said; as, 
" His father gave him money, and so he got drunk." 

The same authority classes so, so then, then, therefore, and whereupon as sequen- 
tial ; accordingly, consequently, hence, thence, therefore, whence, and whereupon 
as consequential ; and, thus, so, so that, and and so as resultant. 



THE CONJUNCTION 267 

(2) The alternative conjunctive adverbs are 
else, otherwise. 

II. Subordinate Connectives. — 1. Of Adjective Clauses. 

(1) Conjunctive adverbs are 

when, where, whereby, wherein, why. 

(2) The relative pronouns are 

that, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever. 

2. Of Adverb Clauses. (1) The conjunctive adverbs of 
time are 

after, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, 

whilst. 

I 

(2) The conjunctive adverbs of place are 

whence, where, wherever. 

(3) The conjunctive adverbs of degree are 

as, than, that, the — the. 

(4) The conjunctive adverb of manner is 

as. 

(5) The conjunctions of real cause are 

as, because, for, since, that, whereas. 

(6) The conjunctions of evidence are 
because, for, since. 



268 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

(7) The conjunctions of purpose are 

in order that, lest, that, so that. 

(8) The conjunctions of condition are 

except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided 
that, unless. 

(9) The conjunctions of concession are 

albeit, although, if, notwithstanding, though, whether. 

(10) The conjunctive adverb of concession is 

however. 

(11) The relative pronouns of concession are 

whatever, whichever, whoever. 

3. Of Noun Clauses. (1) The conjunctions are 

if, lest, that, whether. 

(2) The conjunctive adverbs are 

how, when, whence, where, why. 

(3) The pronouns (used interrogatively) are 

what, which, who. 

Definitions 

Coordinate conjunctions are those used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses of equal rank. 



THE CONJUNCTION 269 

Subordinate 1 conjunctions are those used to connect clauses 
of unequal rank. 

Derivation of Conjunctions. — Some conjunctions are 
simple ; others, compound ; all, originally other parts of 
speech. The derivation of the more common and impor- 
tant of the connectives is given below. 2 

1 The division of subordinate connectives into those introducing (1) adjective clauses ; 
(2) adverb clauses ; and (3) noun clauses ; and the subdivision of those introducing the 
nine kinds of adverb clauses are useful to the student, because several of these con- 
nectives are used with clauses diverse in the relation of their thoughts. The division 
and the subdivision concern the several kinds of subordinacy in which the thought of 
one clause may stand to that of another and show the imperative need of the proper 
introductory connective to herald it. 

2 Albeit= all-he-it, is a sentence in one word. 

Also = all and so, is from the O.E. adjective eal, ' all,' and adverb swa, ' so.' 

Although = ail-though — the though from the O.E. adverb fiedh, 'nevertheless/ 

And, once a preposition meaning against, as in the prefixes a and an of along and 
answer, became a copulative conjunction, and subsequently took on a cona*itional 
force. When, as in Shakespeare, its if sense had become dim, and (reduced to an) 
added if to express condition. Its an form and its */: sense are now obsolete. 

As is a contraction of also. 

Because is by + cause. 

Both and either in the correlatives both — and, either — or are the adjective pro- 
nouns. 

But is from the O.E. butan, be + Man, ' by the outside,' 'beyond.' 

Except, ex + caj>ere, ' to take out.' 

Zest is from O.E. fty lass fte — the instrumental case of the demonstrative, an ad- 
jective in the comparative, and the indeclinable relative. At the dropping of fty, Ices 
$e contracted into lesthe, teste, lest. 

Neither and nor contain the negative particle ne. 

Or is a contraction of other. 

Then is the same word as than — O.E. T&aivne. 

That, originally a demonstrative pronoun, changed into a connective in some such 
way as this : " He lives, I know that " ; "I know that [namely] he lives " ; "I know 
that he lives." 

Unless, on {in) + less. 

Whether is the O.E. interrogative hwwfter, ' which of two.' 

While is the O.E. noun hwil, ' time.' 



270 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 

Proscribed Locutions. — We are told (1) that whether must not be 
used with more than two ; (2) that whether must not be repeated in 
the sentence ; (3) that if must not take the place of whether before an 
object noun clause ; (4) that either and neither must not connect more 
than two ; and (5) that between other and than words must not inter- 
vene. The locutions here proscribed, though not so common as the 
alternative ones prescribed, are abundantly sanctioned by good usage. 
We illustrate below. 1 

Care in the Use of Connectives. — As conjunctions and 
other connectives introduce phrases and clauses, much care 
is needed in their selection and use — a wrong connective, 
or the right one in the wrong place, throws from the track 
a large fraction of the thought. This need is accented by 
the fact that several connectives of the subordinate class 
introduce each many clauses of diverse force, for example — 

as, 2 if, 2 since, when, and that. 3 



1 Whether has slipped the etymological leash that held it to two ; (1) as, " He does 
not know whether it is an angel or a woman or a mermaid "; whether may be used 
with one ; as, " There is a different and sterner path ; I know not whether there be 
any now qualified to teach it " ; (2) whether may be used more than once in a sentence ; 
as, " Whether some one element shall absorb the rest, or whether all shall contribute." 
(3) Whether may take if as a substitute, especially after the verbs ash, doubt, know, 
see, and tell ; as, "Ask any honest robin if he ever ate anything less ascetic than the 
frugal berry of the juniper." (4) The conjunctions either and neither are everywhere 
found with three or more ; as, "I cannot verify it either by touch or taste or smell or 
hearing or sight" ; "Bryant's career had neither rise nor height nor decline" 
(5) Other and than are often separated by intervening words ; as, "Some other pur- 
pose than that." 

2 As if and as though (a clause in each is supposed) are both common, but as if 
far more common than as though. 

8 That before a noun object clause is frequently omitted — its omission is to its use 
about as one to four. 



THE CONJUNCTION 271 

Some errors in their choice and use are illustrated and 
corrected below. 1 

But that, 2 But, and That. — The use of but that is so peculiar 
and the use of but and that so various as to deserve separate 
treatment in the paragraphs below. 3 



1 " Seldom, if '(not or) ever, is time perfectly employed." " Falstaff was not only 
(not not only Falstaff was) witty, but the cause of wit in others." " N~ot only 
midges (not midges not only) annoy, but flies and mosquitoes also." " The charm of 
Tennyson, which (not and which) he has even in excess, is delicacy." " Try to (not 
and) be punctual." " Give me neither poverty nor (not or) riches." " The prayer of 
Agur was, ' Give me neither (not neither gimme) poverty nor riches. ' " "I can- 
not see either (not neither) the island or the mainland." " I don't know that (not as) 
he said so." " A bank-bill is nothing- else than (not but) a promissory note." " Spain 
could not do otherwise than (not but) surrender." "He no sooner saw me than (not 
but) he left." " James is taller than George t but not so stout" (not taller, but not so 
stout, as George). "James is not so stout as George, but taller" (not not so stout, 
but taller, than George). " TJiough (not if) no absolute victory be possible, a hard 
fight is sure to bring- some success." "I went after or because I was told to go" 
{since, meaning either time or cause, would be ambiguous). " When (not while) I 
arrived, and while (not when) I was there, B was present." " No one denies that (not 
but that or but ichat) two and two are four." " Who doubts that (not but that or but 
what) there is a God ? " 

2 But that, when it can be used, gives to the sentence a meaning which that does 
not give. " I do not fear but that he will go," expresses my belief that he will go ; "I 
do not fear that he will go," expresses my belief that he will not go. But that is inad- 
missible after negative words — doubt, deny, etc., — when these are preceded by a 
negative, or by words implying a negative — because the sentence would contain a neg- 
ative verb, a negative preceding the verb, and a negative in the but following it. The 
meaning of such a sentence as, "No one denies but that two and two are four" is the 
affirmative " Every one believes that two and two are four " ; but, though two negatives 
affirm, three do not. 

3 But is (1) a preposition — " No one knows it but me " ; (2) an adjective — " Man 
is but a shadow " ; (3) an adverb— " But one man escaped " ; (4) an adversative con- 
junction — " Man proposes, but God disposes "; (5) a subordinate conjunction — " Not 
a hair falls but (unless) God knows it" ; (6) a conjunctive adverb — "No man is so 
bad but he has some good in him." 



272 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 

Omission of Conjunctions. — Often the connectives are 
omitted ; the mere position of the words, phrases, and 
clauses shows their connection. Their use may contribute 
smoothness 1 to the sentence; their omission, brevity and 
force. Their use or their omission sometimes affects the 
grammatical relation of the clauses connected. 2 

Interjections 

For all we have to say of this part of speech, the student 
is referred to chapter IV. 



That is (1) a conjunction of real cause — "I rejoice not that ye were made sorry 
but that ye sorrowed to repentance " ; (2) a conjunction of purpose — " We sleep that 
the body may recruit" ; (3) a conjunction introducing a noun clause — " We believe 
that we are immortal" ; (4) a conjunctive adverb — " No one is so wise that he never 
does a foolish thing- " ; (5) a relative pronoun — " Ice that forms in March is porous " ; 
(6) an adjective pronoun — " That is slate " ; (7) an adjective — " That rock is slate." 

Than is not a preposition ; yet in such a sentence as, " Than tohom no man is 
better able to speak in every land," it is followed by the objective case of who used 
idiomatically, we may suppose, for the nominative. 

1 Omit conjunctions from this sentence: "And the rain descended and the floods 
came and the winds blew and beat upon that house and it fell and great was the fall 
of it," and note the loss of smoothness. 

2 Take these six sentences for illustration: (1) " The weather is warm and moist, 
the harvest is promising." (2) "Paradise Lost is a monumental poem, it brought 
Milton and his heirs only eighteen pounds ! " (3) " Take the color from the rose, it would 
still be a beautiful flower." (4) "Are you in want? Draw upon me." (5) "Take 
away the grandeur of his cause, Washington is only a rebel." (6) " It is raining, I hear 
the drops pattering upon the roof." 

If sentence (1) began with because; (2) and (3), with though; (4) and (5), with if; 
and the second clause of (6), with for, the clauses thus introduced would become 
dependent — that of (1) would be a cause clause; those of (2) and (3), concessive 
clauses ; those of (4) and (5), condition clauses ; that of (6), a clause of evidence. The 
grammatical relation of each of the six clauses to the other in the sentence would then 
tally with its logical relation to it. 



THE CONJUNCTION 273 

SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND 
EXERCISES UPON THEM 

Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Conjunctions. Connectives — 
Coordinate, Subordinate. Derivation. Proscribed Locutions. The 
Use of Connectives. But, That, and But that. Conjunctions Omitted. 

Questions. — What parts of a sentence may be compound? Com- 
plex? Conjunctions, what? What classes of other parts of speech 
connect? What one part of speech connects simply? Give some 
connectives that are conjunctions. What conjunctions may join 
individual words ? What conjunctive phrase ? What conjunctions 
may join sentences and paragraphs ? Give connectives that are prep- 
ositions also. What ones are conjunctive adverbs ? What ones are 
relative pronouns? One that may be a conjunction, a conjunctive 
adverb, or a relative pronoun. Into what two great classes may con- 
nectives be divided? The importance of the division. Coordinate 
connectives join what different parts of a sentence? Subordinate, 
what only ? Must the clauses which coordinate connectives join 
be independent ? Of what rank must the clauses be which subordinate 
connectives join ? Coordinate connectives divided into what ? These 
sub-classes join clauses whose thought is in what three different lines ? 
This threefold division of coordinate connectives less important than 
what? Why? What does Wrightson call sequential clauses, con- 
sequential, resultant ? What three kinds of subordinate clauses may 
subordinate connectives introduce ? What kinds of adverb clauses ? 
Why is a knowledge of this serviceable ? The composition of albeit, 
also, although, because, but, except, and lest ? What is said of and f 
The reason for unusual care in the use of conjunctions ? The several 
uses of but ? Of that f Of but that f What may the use of conjunc- 
tions give to the sentence ? The omission ? 

Exercises. — Illustrate the proscribed locutions. Sentences with, 
and without, conjunctions, Illustrate the several uses of but, that, 
and but that. Illustrate the effect which the use and the omission of 
conjunctions have upon the grammatical relation of clauses. 

H. SCH. GRAM. — 18 



INDEX 



A, or an, uses 145-149 

A and the, uses distinguished 147-149 

A (icord) or two, etc 145 (note) 

Absolute phrase TO, 96, 123 (note) 

Adjective an, defined.. .48, 49, 58, 134-137 

r affirmed, assumed 135 

apt, number, place, 

136 (note) 
definitive (nu- 
meral), 
classes,-! 136 & note? 13T 

descriptive, 

136, 137 
adjectives 
not com- 
pared, 144 & note 
definition of, 142 
degrees of, 

138, 142 
double, 

144 & note 

faulty, 

compari- J 144 & note, 

son, 145 & note 

form gaining, 143 

in er and est, 

138, 140 
irregular, 
138, 139 & note 

rule for 143 

with adverbs, 

140 & note 
with two . . . 145 



djectives, 



Adjectives, - 



f functions of. 135, 136 

not always limiting, 

48, 135 (note) 

numeral j cardinal, 136 (note) 

( ordinal, 136 (note) 

O.E. inflection of... 137, 138 

origin of 134 

proper order of, 

135 & note, 136 (note) 
used as nouns, 

111 (note), 134 & note 
whether adj. or adv., 

251 & note 

connectives of 53 

= adjectives 58 

= independent clauses, 

122 (note) 

= phrases 57, 58 

modifying omitted 
words 122 & note 

restrictive and unre- 
strictive 122 & note 

unrestrictive, punctua- 
tion 122 (note) 

what 58 



Adjective Complement distinguished 
from adverb modifier 251 & note 



Adjective 
Clauses, 



Adjective Modifiers, nouns as . 



99 



Adverb an, defined 49, 50. 53 



275 



276 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



Adverbs, 



apt ones 250 & note 

as nouns 239 & note 

classified 246-248 

comparison 249, 250 

derivation 239-242 

independent 239 

interrogative 239 

irregular comparison of, 

249, 250 
like adjectives. ..251 & note 

f clauses 238 

modi- J phrases 238 

fying 1 prepositions . . . 238 

[ sentences 238 

negation repeated or not, 

248 & note 
not used for adjectives, 

251 & note 
not used needlessly, 

250 & note 

of negation 248 & note 

position of 250 & note 

with connective force.. 239 

Adverb Clause, illustrated.. .59, 62, 65, 66 

cause 60 

concession 60 

condition 60 

degree 61 

Adverb J evidence 60 

Clauses, | manner 61 

place 59 

purpose 61 

result 61 

time 59 

Adverb Modifiers , nouns as 104 

Adversative Connectives, list 261 

Adversative, meaning of 266 (note) 

A few, a Utile, vs. few and Utile 148 



Agree 
ment 



:{ 



Alpha- 
bet, 



Eng- 
lish, 



of pronoun with antecedent, 193 
of verb with subject, 

189-193 & notes 



composed of what 13 

consonants 20, 21 

defective 22 

derivation 16-18 

redundant 22 

vowels 18, 19 

perfect one what 22 

Alternative Connectives, list. . . .266, 26T 

Alternative, meaning of 266 (note) 

Antecedent 46, 110, 111 

Any body (or one) else's 131 

Apostrophe the 98 & note 

Appositive 99 

classes I definite 146 

classes,-; indefinite H6 

errors in use of, 

146 (note), 147 (note) 
Articles, ■{ hardly distinguished, 

148 (note) 

repeated when 146, 147 

uses of a, or an, and the, 

147-149 

relative pronoun 124 & note 

As, ■{ with clauses of degree, manner, 61 

with variety of clauses 267 

As . 7 . so 61 

As it were, mode 173 

Aspirate 20 (note) 

Assumed Subject, what 154 

Attribute Complement 95 

Auxiliary j defined 183 

Verbs, 1 discussion of 193-201 

Base, or Stem 74 

Be, and conjugation, 193, 194, 217, 221-226 
Beside and besides distinguished, 

261 (note) 

Best of the two 145 

BeUceen with three or more 260 (note) 

Breath 14 

adversative conjunction, 271 (note) 
a preposition, 124 (note), 271 (note) 

various uses of 271 (note) 

with or without that. .. 271 (note) 
with ichat incorrect for but 
that or but, 124 (note), 271 (note) 



But, 



INDEX 



277 



Case, 



Can and could 201 & notes 

defined 92 & note, 98 

nominative case 95-97 

objective case 102-105 

O.E. case and number end- 
ings dropped how .. 94 

O.E. genitive 9T 

of attrib. comp 96, 97 

of explanatory modifier 96 

of noun or pronoun independ- 
ent 96 

of noun or pronoun used ad- 
verbially 104 

of objective complement 105 

possessive 97-102 

definitions of 95, 98, 103 

in O.E 93,94 

old number of — 92 (note) 

relations of 255, 256 

errors in 126-128 

five pronouns have three, 

112, 113, 119 

nouns have two 93 

only eight nominative, 109 (note) 
only seven objective, 109 (note) 

Cause, adverbs of 69 (note), 248 

Clause a, what 56 

( dependent . . . 57-62 

classes, \ . * , , KC KPf 

[ independent, 56, 57 

complex and compound, 

62, 65-67 

radjective 57, 53 



Cases, 



Case 
Forms, 



Clauses, 



depe t nd " \ adverb 59-62 

ent ' I noun 58,59 

inde- f in alternation, 
pendent J 56, 57 

(the j in contrast.. 56, 57 
thought), tin same line, 56, 57 

Collective \ defined 76 

Nouns, J of what number 192 

r adjectives without it 144 

I definition of 142 

■\ degree used with two. . . 145 

j degrees of, defined 142 

t, double, origin of. . 144 & note 



Compari- 
son, 



Compari- 
son, 



Comple- 
ments, 



faulty, 144 & note, 145 & note 

forms of.. 138, 140 

irregular 138, 139 

when adverb used 140 

which form gaining 143 

Complement, what 103 

attribute 36-38, 40 

(subjective) 38 

compound 40 

object 38, 39 

objective 105 

Complex Sentence, what... 57-62, 65, 66 

Compound Object Complement 103 

Compound Personal Pronouns, 114 & notes 

Compound Predicate, defined 39 

Compound Relative Pronouns 126 

Compound Sentence, what.. 56, 57, 65, 66 

Compound Subject, defined 39 

Condition Clauses without conjunc- 
tion 174 (note) 

definition of 217 

forms active 221-234 

forms passive 232-234 

of O.E 217,218 

remarks on 218, 219 

Conjunction a, what — 52 & note, 54, 264 
f coordinate . . . 268 
ClaSSeS, 1 subordinate... 269 
adversative, 

266 & note 
alternative, 

266 & note 
connect senten- 
ces and para- 
graphs, 264 (note) 
copulative, 

266 & note 

Conjunctive j offices of 265-268 

Adverbs, 1 what 246 

care in the use of 270 

adversative, 

266 & note 
alternative, 

266 & note, 267 
copulative, 

266 & note 



Conjuga- 
tion, 



Conjunc- 
tions, 



coor- 
dinate, 



Connect- 
ives, 



coor- 
dinate, 



I 



278 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB 



Connect 
ives, 



subor- 
dinate, 



Consonants 

(classes of), 



errors in use of 271 (note) 

of adjective 

clauses 267 

of adverb 

clauses... 267,268 
of noun clauses, 268 

dentals 21 

fricatives 20 

gutturals 21 

labials 21 

mutes 20 

palatals 21 

sonants 20, 21 & note 

surds 20, 21 & note 

Coordinate Conjunctions 266, 268 

Copulative, meaning of 266 (note) 

Copula, what 34 (note) 

D of the ed in past tense 206 (note) 

D of the ed of past participles . .207 (note) 

Dare, without s form 189 (note) 

Dative for Nominative. . . .118, 119 (note) 

Declarative Sentence, defined 42 

defined 93 

Mn.E. & O.E. nouns. ... 93, 94 
Declen- of interrogative pronouns. . 119 
sion, I of personal pronouns, 

112, 113, 114 

of relative pronouns 121, 126 

Degree, adverbs of 247, 248 

Digraphs 21 (note) 

Diminution, degrees of 142 & note 

Diphthongs 20 (note) 

Do 194 & note, 232 

Drive, conjugation 227-230 

Error of his for s 98 (note) 

Ethical Dative 104 

Evidence distinguished from Cause . . 60 
Exclam- 
atory 
Sentences, 
Explanatory Modifier 49, 59, 68, 99 



definition of 43 

order of words in 42 



Factitive Verbs 105 

Few, a 130 & note 



Gender, 



First two, etc 145 

For to 155 (note) 

defined 85, 86 

derivation 85 (note) 

feminine from masculine, 86. 87 

grammatical 85 (note) 

of names of animals 88 

used in personification 88 

Genders, the three defined 86 

Gender Forms 86, 87 

Gerund 156 (note), 158 (note) 

Get 235 (note) 

Glide 20 (note) 

Go, anomalous 217 

Had better, rather, sooner 235 (note) 

( auxiliary 194-196 & n otes 

' 1 conjugation 226, 227 

Hers, ours, etc 112 (note) 

Hieroglyphs 14, 15 

f for even if, although 61 

J for whether 270 (note) 

*'' J omission of 174 (note) 

[ variety of uses 268 

Imperative Mode 168, 169, 175 

Imperative j definition of 41, 43 

Sentence, 1 order of words in. . 41 (note) 

In and into distinguished 261 (note) 

In case that 268 

independent J d f "f>? »'• •••■••• -56, 57 
Clauses, J»^ed without conjunc- 

^ tion 57 

Indicative Mode 168, 169, 170 & note 

Indirect or Dative Object. .71 & note, 

104, 162, 163 (note) 

assumed subject 154 

definition of 156 

old dative of 155 (note) 

tenses of 180 

why called infinitive. . . 154 

' after a preposition. 156 

as adjective modifier. . . 156 

as adverb modifier 156 

as attribute comple- 
ment 156 



Infinitive 

(the), 



Infinitive 
Phrase, 



INDEX 



279 



Infinitive 
Phrase, 



Interrogative 
Pronouns, 

Interrogative 
Sentences, 



A 



{de 
de 
lis 



as explanatory modi- 
fier 156 

as object complement. . 156 
as objective comple- 
ment 156 

as subject 156 

cleft or split 250 (note) 

I- independent 156 

In order that 268 

Interjection an , defined 52, 54 

declension 119 

definition Ill 

list 110 

definition of 40, 42 

order of words in, 

41 & note 

Intransitive Verbs, definition 152 

f for a clause 110 

idiomatic use of 110, 128 (note) 

use for animals and children ... 88 

t vague uses 113 (note) 

It is me, him, etc 128 (note) 

Its and they 113 (note) 

r made up of words 13 

Language, \ natural 24 

^ word 13 

Last two, etc 145 

Less, the final s of, and lesser.. .139 (note) 

j composition of 269 (note) 

Lest > \ various uses of 268 

consonants 14, 18-21 

origin of 14, 15 

vowels 14,18,19 



Letters, - 



Many a, explanation of 130 (note) 

Manner, adverbs of 248 

Masculine Pronoun, use of 88 

May and might 200 & note 

M.E. personal pronouns from 118 

Mine, thine, of thine, etc 112 (note) 

Mode, what 163 

e C imperative, 168 

Modes, \ Classes, \ indicative.. 168 

I L subjunctive, 168 



Modes, 



definitions of 169 

imperative, no 2d and 

3d persons .. .175 & note 

indicative, uses — 168, 169 

(note), 173, 174 (note) 

potential disused . . 169, 170 

& note 

subjunctive 168-175 

Modifications, definition 76 

Modifiers, J definition 35 

( different rank . . .136 (note) 
Must 196 & note 

N, ne, the negative particle 242 (note) 

Natural Language 24 

Nearer, double comparative • . . 139 (note) 

Need, without s form 189 (note) 

Negation by adverbs 242 (note) 

Negatives, double 248 & note 

No and yes 242 (note) 

No body (or one) else's 131 

Nominative Forms, eight 109 (note) 

None 129 (note) 

Noun a, definition 45, 53 

definition 158 

like a participle 157 

modified how. . .157 & note 
reasons for name, 

158 (note) 

tenses of 180 

unlike a participle 157 

abstract 75, 76 

as adjective modifiers, 98, 99 

as adverb modifiers 104 

cases of 92-105 

classes of 75 

collective 75, 76 

common and proper, 

74 (note), 75, 76 & note 

declension .93, 94 

derivation of 74 & note 

gender of 85-88 

number, kinds of 77 

offices c/ 45 

person of .89,90 

roots of 74 & note 



Nounal 
Verb, 



Nouns, 



280 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



Noun 

Clauses, 



Noun 
Modifier, 



Number, 



Nouns and pronouns in the possessive, 
as antecedents.. 100 (note), 113 (note) 
' as attribute complement, 58 
as explanatory modifier. 59 
as object complement ... 58 
as principal term of prep- 
ositional phrase 59 

as subject 58 

connectives of 268 

c explanatory (a p p o s i - 

\ tive) 45,99 

I possessive 45, 99 

' definition of 77 

' dual 77 (note) 

plu., hist., 77 (note) 
plu. excep. .. 78 
kinds, \ plu. irreg. ..79, 80 
plu. reg. ... 77, 78 
plu. pecul... 80-83 

singular 77 

of verbs shows what 189 

(cognate 70 (note) 
direct .. 70 
indirect, or dative, 71 &note, 104 
passive, factitive 71 

Object, indirect, made subject, 

162, 163 (note) 
Object and Object Complement distin- 
guished 152 (note) 

becoming subject ... 161 

compound 103 

Object Com- j definition of 103 

plement, retained after verb in 

passive, 

162, 163 & note 
Objective c an infinitive phrase, 156 

Complement, \ definition 105 

Objective Forms, seven 109 (note) 

n j in place of possessive sign 101 

' ' / not alwavs indicating possession, 102 

Of mine, etc 112 (note) 

On condition that 268 

Ought . . i 186 



Parti- 
ciples, 



adjectival ; 152, 153 

agreement in O.E 195 & note 

as attribute complements. .. 154 

as prepositions 255 (note) 

definition of .152, 153, 180 

endings 153 (note) 

forms of 179, 180 

in independent phrases ... 70, 96 
substitute for clauses.. .153, 154 

tenses of 179 

use 153,154 

Parts of Speech 45, 73 

Passive Voice, idiomatic constructions, 

164 & note 

Periods of English 28 (note) 

r forms .89, 110, 112, 113 

_ of a noun or pronoun 89, 90 

PerSOn> of avert,.... 90 

[ why regarded in grammar, 90 

Personification 88 

Persons , the three defined 89 

Phrase a, defined 35 

f absolute 70, 96, 128 (note) 

adjective 49, 68 (note) 

adverb, 50, 69 (note), 243 & note 

complex 64, 65 

compound 40 

infinitive 67-69 

interchange with clauses . . 58 
interchange with words ... 57 
prepositional, 

68 & note, 69 & note 

used independently. 156 

verb 44, 67 

Place, adverbs of 247 

Plural Number. 77-83 

double 79 (note) 

ending, origin 77 (note) 

foreign forms of 80 

formed irregularly 79 

formed regularly 77, 78 

form same as singular 79 

forms of verbs 193, 230 

forms treated as singular. . . 81 

no form for 82 

; nouns originally singular. . . 82 



Phrases, 



Plural, 



INDEX 



281 



Plural, 



Posses- 
sive 
Ending, 



of compound words 81, 82 

of letters, figures, etc 82 

of proper names 82 & note 

sign varies 101 (note) 

some words always 81 

two forms with different 

meaning 80, 81 

without singular of like 
* meaning 81 

' added to explanatory word, 100 

ambiguity avoided by 102 

attached to the adjective. . . 131 

confined to what 97 & note 

error respecting 98 (note) 

invariable 101 (note) 

of compound names , 100 

of for 101 

origin of 98 

when omitted 99 

i, when pronounced es 99 

adjective what 135 

a verb or contains one 46 

compound 39, 40 

definition of 35 

grammatical 36 

modified, or logical 36 

modified by what 69, 70 

noun what 96 

of two or more words 46 

Preposition a, defined, 

51, 52 (note), 54, 256, 257 

' becoming adverbs 261, 262 

classified 254, 255 

derivative 253 

distinguished 261 (note) 

ending a sentence. . 260 & note 

ending in ing .255 (note) 

errors in use of 261 (note) 

in Sanskrit 253 

meaning extended 257-259 

needed, needless 261 & note 

original office 253 

two before a noun 103 

with verb before a noun . . . 103 



Predi- 
cate, 



Preposi- 
tions, 



r defined 46, 53, 108, 109 

Pronoun the, -J differs from a noun, 

I 109 & note, 110 



' agreement 193 

antecedent of 110 

nom. and obj. forms. .109 (note) 
f adj . . . . Ill, 129-131 
int., 110,111,119,120 

per 110-114 

[rel., 110, 111, 120-123 
declension of.. 112-114, 119, 126 

declension of O.E 117-119 

denote relations 108 

division of adj Ill (note) 

number 77 

„ vagueness of 108, 109 



Pro- 
nouns, 



classes, ■ 



Pronouns 
(Adjec- 
tive), 



a(word) or two, etc., 145 (note) 
all, both, and whole be- 
fore of 132 (note) 

any body (or one) else's, 

etc 131 

declension of 129 

definition of Ill 

demonstrative 111 (note) 

distributive Ill (note) 

each other, with two or 

more 132 (note) 

either, neither, with two 

or more 132 (note) 

either for each 132 (note) 

first tico, last three, etc.. 145 
he, etc. after indefinite 

one 132 (note) 

indefinite Ill (note) 

none in both numbers, 

132 (note) 

no with one 132 (note) 

other and than, words 

between .- 270 (note) 

partial list of Ill 

reciprocal Ill (note) 

such or so with adjectives, 

132 (note), 145 (note) 



282 



Pronouns 
(Interroga- 
tive) , 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 



Pronouns 
(Personal), 



became relative . . 121 & note 

declension 119 

definition Ill 

list 110 

compound 114 & note 

declension 112, 113 

definition Ill 

its, history of 113 (note) 

mine, etc 112 (note) 

order of 192 (note) 

ours, yours, etc., 
double possessives, 

112 (note) 

remarks on 109, 110 

thee for thou . . . 119 (note) 
use of compound, 114 & note 
we hardly plural of 7, 

112 (note) 

we instead of 1 114 

you for thou 112 (note) 

L you for ye 118 (note) 

" compound 126 

declension 121 

definition Ill 

discriminated in use 121, 122 

omitted when 123 

prime distinction of 120 

substitutes for which. . . 123 

that restrictive 122 

that for who and which, 122 
who and which restric- 
tive and unrestrictive, 

122 & note 
with omitted anteced- 
l ents 122 & note 



Question, direct and indirect 42 (note) 

Questions 23, 32, 43, 44, 54, 55, 63, 72, 

83, 84, 90, 106, 107, 115, 116, 124, 125, 132, 
133, 140, 141, 149, 150, 159, 160, 166, 167, 
176, 187, 188, 201, 202, 203, 211, 219, 220, 
235, 236, 244, 245, 251, 252, 261, 263, 273. 

Restrictive and Unrestrictive 

clauses 122 (note) 

Result, clauses of 61 



Pronouns 
(Relative), 



• I 1 

r 



Rhotacism 138, 166 (note) 

Roots 25, 26, 74 & note 

Runes 17 

Self and selves 114 (notes) 

Semivowels 18 (note) 

Sentence a, defined 34 

r complex... 62, 66, 67 

form, \ compound, 62, 65, 66 

L simple 62 

Sentences J . f declarative ... 40, 42 

(classed), (mean- exclamatory.. 42, 43 

ing, \ imperative . . .41, 43 

interrogative, 

40, 42 & note 

f clauses 183,185 

Sequence . nfinitive ^ m 

m ° I participle 186, 187 

Tenses, F * _• iQI _ 

I nounal verb 187 

Shall and will 196-199 & notes 

Should and would 199 & note, 200 

Since, various uses of 267 

Singular Number 77 

So, compendious 248 (note) 

Some = 4 about ' 131 (note) 

Some body (or one) else's 131 

r of English letters 18-21 

Sounds, \ of O.E. letters 33 

l the primitive 15, 16 

Spelling, rules for 143 

I account of 204, 205 
inflections of 230,231 
list of 208,209 
persistence of 206 (note) 

assumed, what 154 

compound 39, 40 

defined 34 

Subject, \ grammatical 36 

may be what 67, 68 

modified, or logical 37 

, modified by what 68 

'definition of '. 169 

Subjunc- disappearing 171, 172 

tive i frequent in 174 & note 

Mode, uses of 172-175 

k uses in O.E , . 171 & note 



INDEX 



288 



Tense, 



Subordinate Conjunctions 268, 269 

Subordinate Connectives 26T, 268 

Substantive a 47 & note 

Suffixes 26, 74, 75 

Syllable a 14 

Synopsis, what 217, 231, 232 

defined 177, 179 

essential office 177 

future, how used 182 

incidental offices, 178, 179 (note) 

past, how used 181 

past perfect, how used 182 

present, how used .... 181 

present perfect, how used, 

182, 186 (note) 

signs in English 183 

' compound 178 

defined 179 

fluid in time 180 

simple 178 

I sequence of 183-186 

after comparatives. .248 & note 

errors in use of 271 (note) 

from what 248 (note) 

I. in degree clause 61, 267 

Than whom 272 (note) 

That, various uses 272 (note) 

Thai and this, reference 130 

with cause clause, 

267, 272 (note) 
with noun clause, 

268, 270 (note), 272 (note) 
with purpose clause, 

268, 272 (note) 
adv., degree clause, 

267, 272 (note) 
distinguished from who 

and ivhich 122 

for who and which 121 

generally restrictive 122 

preposition follows 121 

The one, th e other 130 

The, uses of 146-149, 239 (note) 

with clauses 61 

not the article, 146 (note), 241 



Tenses, - 



Than, 



That 
(Conj.), 



That, conj. 



That 
(Rel. Pr.), 



The. 



theV 
h 



Verb Be, - 



Verbs 

(classes), 



form, 



This, these, and those 129 & note, 130 

Thon, a candidate 129 (note) 

Thought a 34 

' construction of, 

154 (note), 155 (note) 
To with expressing relation . . 154 (note) 

infini- \ no part of 155 (note) 

tive, omitted 155 & note 

position of 251 (note) 

; without relation 155 (note) 

Transitive \ definition of 152 

Verbs, \ conjugated passively, 232-234 

Umlaut 80 (note) 

Unless (= if not) 60 

Verba, defined 46, 53, 151 

' an auxiliary 193, 194 

conjugation of 221-226 

endings 193 

roots of 193 

Verb Phrase 46 

j strong ....... 204-210 

1 weak, 206, 207, 212-216 
( intransitive... 152 

meaMng 'l transitive 152 

agreement 189-193 & notes 

a modern passive form, 

164, 165, 233, 234 

auxiliary 193-201 

changing their voice, 

162, 163 (note) 
conjugated in continuing 

form 231, 232 

conjugated interrogatively. . 232 

conjugated negatively 232 

Verbs, \ conjugated passively... 232-234 

conjugation of 221-234 

conjugation of O.E .... 217, 218 

defective 213 (note) 

deponent 166 (note) 

endings in Eng 230, 231 

forms not asserting, 152, 155, 157 

inflections of 230, 231 

C definition 152 

\ made transitive, 
ll52 (note), 153 (note) 



intran- 
sitive, 



284 



HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB 



Verbs, 



strong, 



' mode, defined 168, 169 

number forms 189, 230, 281 

number of, defined 189 

passive form compound, 232-234 

person forms 189, 230, 231 

person of 189 

principal parts 207 

redundant 213 (note) 

account of 204 

list 208, 209 

O.E., examples 

of 205 

origin of 204 

participle end- 
ing 210 

participle stem, 210 

past stem 210 

persistence, 

206 (note) 
. principal parts, 207 

strong and weak distinguished, 
207 

subjunctive fading 171, 172 

tense 177-187 

the e and the d of past tense, 

206 (note) 
the e and the d of past parti- 
ciple 207 (note) 

/ definition of . . . . 152 



transi 

sively .... 232-234 



tive, ) eon J u o ated P as " 



1 


' definition ..... 212 


weak 1 


increasing, 


(regular), 1 


207 (note) 


1 


, origin of 206 




r changes of ed.. 216 




consonant 


weak 


change 216 


(irregular), 


list of 213-215 




vowel change, 




L 215, 216 



Verbs 

(agree- 
ment), 



' errors in 189 & 190 (notes) 

exceptions to rule 190 

seeming exceptions 191 

with and in what 189 

with collective noun ...... 192 

with subjects connected by 

and 190 

with subjects connected by 

or or nor '. 192 

with subjects emphatically 

distinguished 190, 191 

with subjects following 191 

with subjects naming same 

thing 190 

with subjects one affirma- 
tive and one negative 191 

with subjects preceded by 

each, every, etc 191 

with subjects varying in 

person 192 



with verbs 248 (note) 



Vocabulary 



•{ 



Mn.E 26-28 & note 

O.E., five effects of Nor- 
man Conquest upon, 27-31 



Voice the 14 

Voice, defined 161 

dative object in passive, 

162, 163 (note) 

defined 162 

passive, expressing continu- 
ing action 164, 165 

passive, formed how 163 

passive, formed in O.E., 
Voices, J 163 vnote) 

passive, origin, 

165 (note), 166 (note) 

passive, test of 164 (note) 

passive, with object, 

162, 163 (note) 
peculiar passives — 164 & note 
uses of 162 (note) 



INDEX 



285 



Vowels, 



(back 19 
front 19 
mixed 19 
open throat 19 

sounds of 18 

what 14, 18 



Walk, conjugation 228-230 

r account of 206, 20T, 213 

\ increasing 207 (note) 

I inflections of 230, 231 

' condensed relative . . . 122 (note) 

misuse for that 271 (note) 

uses of 121, 123, 241 (note) 

k without antecedent 122 

' conjunctive adverb 267, 268 

connecting various clauses, 

267, 268 

in adjective clauses, 69 (note), 267 
, noun 239 (note) 

{conjunctive adverb 267 
connecting various clauses.. 267 
in adjective clauses, 69 (note), 267 



Weak 
Verbs, 



What, 



When, 



Whether, 



| repeated 270 (note) 

i with more than two, 270 (note) 



Whether or no 244 (note) 

'an adjective 120, 123 

an interrogative pronoun, 

119, 120 

Which, \ a relative pronoun 121-123 

clause as antecedent 123 

composition of 120 

. declension 119 

I in restrictive clauses, 120 & note 
in unrestrictive clauses, 
120 & note 
who and which or that 122 

While, connecting clauses 265, 267 

Whose, relative 121 & note 

Will and would 196-200 & notes 



Words 



•I 



:en words, what 13 

written words, what 13 

Worth, a verb 163 (note) 

Worser, double comparative . . . 139 (note) 
Wrong Case-forms, why 126-128 

Te US (note) 

Yes and no 242 (note) 



/ 



ui 



•*, 



* 



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